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THE AMERICAN 

WATCHMAKER # JEWELER 




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THE 

AMERICAN WATCHMAKER 

AND JEWELER 

AN ENCYCLOPEDIA 
FOR THE HOROLOGIST, JEWE1 ER, GOLD AND SILVERSMITH 



CONTAINING HUNDREDS OF PRIVATE 

RECEIPTS AND FORMULAS COMPILED FROM THE BEST 

AND MOST RELIABLE SOURCES. COMPLETE DIRECTIONS FOR USING 

ALL THE LATEST TOOLS, ATTACHMENTS AND DEVICES 

FOR WATCHMAKERS AND JEWELERS 



BY HENRY G. ABBOTT 



ILLUSTRATED WITH 200 ENGRAVINGS 




CHICAGO : 

Geo. K. H vzlitt & Co., Publishers 

1891. 



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Copyrighted 1890, 1 y 
Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co. 






PREFACE. 



FOR some years there has been a demand among the 
watchmaking and jewelry fraternity of this country, for 
a book that would furnish them some information in regard 
to tools of American manufacture, drawings and descriptions 
of the various escapments, definitions of various words and 
phrases used in the trade, etc. There are upon the market 
several very valuable works, compiled by English, French 
and German authors, but these works are silent in regard to 
tools and methods distinctively American. Most of these 
works devote considerable space to the use of the bow lathe, 
the turns and other devices long ago relegated to the shades 
of obscurity by the American watchmaker. 

The ambitious workman is always in search of knowledge, 
in search of new ideas, new tools and new methods. Patient 
study, constant practice and ambition are requisite to become 
a proficient in any art. The demand for skilled workmen is 
constantly increasing, and a person wishing to thoroughly 
master any art, must be to a certain extent capable of self in- 
struction. To be a proficient in any art a man must not be 
deft of touch alone but the head must also play its part. In 
America the watchmaker is somewhat differently situated 
from his European brothers. In the country towns he is 
often called upon not only to clean and repair watches and 
clocks, but is often asked to put in order or repair music boxes, 
fishing reels, musical instruments, sewing machines, electric 
motors, statuettes, pipes and a variety of other articles too 



numerous to mention. It would be next to impossible for the 
ordinary workman to remember all the various instructions, 
hints, pointers, formulas and recipes which he has read or 
heard about, and the author believes such persons will wel- 
come this little volume and that it will prove valuable for 
reference in cases of emergency. 



THE AMERICAN 

WATCHMAKER AND JEWELER 



AN ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR THE 
HOROLOGIST, JEWELER, GOLD AND SILVERSMITH 



ACCELERATION. This term in horology is applied 
to the steady gaining in the rate of a time-keeper, particularly 
to be observed in new movements. It is positively known to 
occur in marine chronometers, watches as a rule not being 
subjected to tests sufficiently accurate to detect it in them. 
There is but little doubt that the hairspring is the cause of 
acceleration. Old movements after being re-sprung some 
times accelerate, particularly if the overcoil is manipulated too 
much when timing. Britten declares that there is little doubt 
that the tendency of springs is to increase slightly in strength 
for some time after they are subjected to continuous action just 
as bells are found to alter a little in tone after use. Some- 
times the very best chronometers, after going for a year or 
two, will accelerate by about three to four seconds per day. 
M.Jacob attributes this acceleration to the fact that chronom- 
eters are exposed to heat oftener and for longer periods than 
to cold, and since the balance is thus more frequently con- 
tracted it follows that after a time the segments will not return 
exactly to their initial positions. There will therefore be nec- 
essarily a slight acceleration of the rate. 

Dent believed that it was due to the combination of oxy- 
gen of the air with the steel hairspring, so that after a time 
its rigidity is increased. 

2 9 



ACIDS AND SALTS. 10 

M. Villarceau attributed it to the influence of the escape- 
ment and that it arises from the fact that the impact commu- 
nicating the impulse occurs before the balance has arrived at 
its neutral position. 

M. H. Robert attributes it to the fact that the resistance 
opposed by oil at the pivots of the escape wheel differs from 
that at the pivots of the balance. 

Flat springs do not accelerate as much as those having 
overcoils. Palladium springs accelerate very much less than 
hardened steel springs. 

ACIDS AND SALTS. Acids and salts of various 
kinds are employed by the watchmaker and jeweler, but he 
should never keep them in proximity to his tools or work or 
he may have cause to regret it some day. It is advisable to 
keep them in glass-stoppered bottles. 

Alum is sometimes used for removing the stains left by 
soldering in lieu of acids, and is also used in removing broken 
screws from brass plates by immersing the plates in a strong 
solution of alum and water, the best results being obtained 
from a boiling solution, which rapidly converts the steel into 
rust, while it does not attack the brass plate. 

Aqua Fortis or Nitric Acid. This acid, either in a pure 
or diluted form is a powerful corrosive and will dissolve silver, 
German silver, nickel, mercury, zinc, copper, brass, lead, steel, 
or iron. Tin when treated with this acid is reduced to a white 
powder called metastannic acid, and alloys containing tin 
when treated with this acid deposit the tin as mentioned above 
while the other ingredients pass into solution. 

Aqua Regia, a mixture of about two parts by weight 
hydrochloric and one part nitric acid, will dissolve gold, plati- 
num, brass, tin, copper, iron, steel, zinc, nickel and German 
silver. Neither of the two acids which combined form aqua 
regia will attack gold or platinum. 

Borax is used as a flux in soldering gold, silver, platinum 
and other metals. It is ordinarily used in the form of a paste 
which is obtained by rubbing the borax on a slate or stone slab. 



11 



ACID BOTTLE. 



Hydrochloric Acid will dissolve slowly German silver, 
nickel, brass, copper, iron, steel, zinc and tin. 

Hydrofluoric Acid will dissolve nearly all metals except 
silver, platinum and lead. It is a dangerous acid to handle 
unless you are thoroughly acquainted with its nature. It is 
used for etching on copper, enamel and glass. 

Sal-Ammoniac or Chloride of Ammonium is used as 
a flux in soldering tin and other metals in the form of a paste 
obtained by combining with sweet oil. It is also used in 
battery solutions in electro-plating. 

ACID BOTTLE. A neat form of acid bottle is shown 
in Fig. i. The acid is kept in a glass 
bottle having a twisted glass dropper 
attached to the cork, and the bottle is 
kept in a screw-top wooden case, doing 
away with all chances of breakage and 
lessening to a minimum the chances of 
destruction of work, clothes and tools. 

ADENDUM CIRCLE. The dis- 
tance or space between the pitch line of 
a gear and the circle touching the ends 
of the teeth. 

ADHESION. Adhesion is the 
mutual attraction which two bodies 
fig. i. have for one another, as attraction 

between the liquid and the substance of the vessel containing 
it. See also Oil and Capillarity. Saunier says that the work- 
ing parts in contact with each other should separate by sliding 
action and not by a sudden drawing assunder in a direction 
perpendicular to their touching surfaces, as such, an action 
would involve the inconvenience of variable resistances, de- 
pending on the greater or less adhesion or cohesion of these 
surfaces. The amount of adhesion between clean surfaces is 
difficult to determine and it is impossible to give its exact pro- 
portion. In the case of oiled surfaces the resistance due to 
adhesion is proportional to the extent of the surfaces in contact. 




ADJUSTING ROD. 12 

ADJUSTING ROD. A device for testing the pull of 
the mainspring. 

ADJUSTMENT. The manipulation of the balance, its 
spring and staff, for the purpose of improving the time-keep- 
ing qualities of a watch. Three adjustments are usually em- 
ployed for this purpose, viz. : positions, isochronism and com- 
pensation. 

Adjustment to Positions. The manipulation of the hair- 
spring and balance so that the movement keeps time in the 
different positions. In ordinary watches two positions are 
taken, viz.: pendant up or vertical and dial up or horizontal. 
In the finer grade of work adjustments are made in the quar- 
ters, that is, with 3 up and 9 up. This adjustment is a deli- 
cate and often a difficult operation and it is only by constant 
study and application that the watchmaker can hope for suc- 
cess.* The object of timing or adjusting to positions is to ascer- 
tain how far a change of position modifies the compensation 
and isochronism and to verify the poising of the balance. Sau- 
nier says the balance cannot possibly be accurately poised in all 
positions if the pivots and pivot holes are not perfectly round, 
and the poising will be modified with a change of tempera- 
ture if the two arms do not act identically; as will be the 
case when the metals are not homogeneous, when one or both 
arms have been strained owing to want of skill on the part of 
the workman, or careless work, etc. After accurately timing 
in a vertical position with XII. up, make it go for twelve 
hours with VI. up and the same number of hours with III. 
and IX. up. Observe with care both the rates and the ampli- 
tude of the arcs and note them down. Assuming the pivots 
and pivot holes to be perfectly round and in good condition 

* Several excellent essays on this subject are in print, among which 
may be mentioned Modern Horology in Theory and Practice and the 
Watchmaker's Hand-Book by Claudius Saunier, the Watch and Clock- 
maker's Hand-Book by F. J. Britten, and Adjustments to Positions, 
Isochronism and Compensation, published by G. K. Hazlitt & Co., 
Chicago. Isochronal adjustments are thoroughly reviewed in an excel- 
lent little work by Moritz Immisch entitled Prize Essay on the Balance 
Spring. 



13 ADJUSTMENT. 

and that the poising of the balance has been previously tested 
with care by the ordinary means, if the variations in the four 
positions are slight the poising may be regarded as satis- 
factory. As a general, but not invariable rule, a loss in one 
position on the rate observed in the inverse position may be 
taken to indicate that the weight of the upper part of the 
balance is excessive when it does not vibrate through an arc 
of 360 or the lower part if the arcs of motion exceed this 
amount. Independently of the balance this loss may be 
occasioned by excessive friction of the pivots due to a too 
great pressure owing to the calliper being faulty, or to a dis- 
tortion of the hair-spring causing its center of gravity to lie 
out of the axis of the balance. If these influences become at 
all considerable their correction will be beyond the power of 
the isochronal hair-spring, and indeed it will be impossible to 
counteract them. Changes in the rate on changing from the 
vertical to the horizontal position may also arise from the 
following causes: 1. The action of the escape wheel, which 
is different according as it tends to raise the balance staff or 
to force it laterally. 2. A hairspring that starts to one side 
and so displaces its center of gravity, a balance that is not 
well poised, pivots or pivot holes that are not perfectly round, 
faults which although of but little importance in the vertical 
position of the balance staff become serious when it is hori- 
zontal. 3. The more marked portion of the friction of the 
pivots may take place against substances of different degrees 
of hardness in the two cases, the end stones being frequently 
harder than the jewels. Saunier further says that satisfactory 
results will be obtained in most cases by employing the fol- 
lowing methods, either separately or two or more together, 
according to the results of experiments or the rates, the 
experience and the judgment of the workman: 

1. Flatten slightly the ends of the balance pivots so as to 
increase their radii of friction; when the watch is lying flat 
the friction will thus become greater. 

2. Let the thickness of the jewel holes be no more than 
is absolutely necessary. It is sometimes thought sufficient to 
chamfer the jewel hole so as to reduce the surface on whicn 



ADJUSTMENT. 14 

friction occurs; but this does not quite meet the case since an 
appreciable column of oil is maintained against the pivot. 

3. Reduce the diameters of the pivots, of course changing 
the jewel holes. The resistance due to friction, when the 
watch is vertical, increases rapidly with any increase in the 
diameters of pivots. 

4. Let the hair-spring be accurately centered, or it must 
usually be so placed that the lateral pull tends to lift the bal- 
ance when the watch is hanging vertical. In this and the 
next succeeding case it would sometimes be advantageous to 
be able to change the point at which it is fixed, but this is 
seldom possible. 

5. Replace the hair-spring by one that is longer or shorter 
but of the same strength; this is with a view to increase or 
diminish the lateral pressure in accordance with the explana- 
tion given in the last paragraph. 

6. Set the escapement so that the strongest impulse cor- 
responds wiih the greatest resistance of the balance. 

7. Replace the balance. A balance that is much too 
heavy renders the timing for positions impossible. 

8. Lastly, when these methods are inapplicable or insuffi- 
cient there only remains the very common practice of throw- 
ing the balance out of poise. 

Adjustment to Isochronism. The manipulation of the 
hair-spring so that the long and short arcs of the balance are 
performed in the same time. The theory of isochronism 
advanced by Dr. Robert Hooke and more commonly known 
as Hooke's law, " as the tension so is the force," is an axiom 
in mechanics with which everybody is, or should be familiar. 
This law has like nearly all others its exceptions, and it is only 
partially true as applied to hair-springs of watches; " other- 
wise," says Glasgow, " every spring would be isochronous." 
Pierre Le Roy says that there is in every spring of a sufficient 
extent a certain length where all the vibrations long or short, 
great or small, are isochronous, and that this length being 
secured, if you shorten the spring the great vibrations will be 
quicker than the small ones; if, on the contrary, it is length- 
ened the small arcs will be performed in less time than the 



15 ADJUSTMENT. 

great ones. Glasgow says that a hair-spring of whatever form 
to be isochronous must satisfy the following conditions: Its 
center of gravity must always be on the axis of the balance, 
and it must expand and contract in the vibrations concentrically 
with that axis. When these conditions are secured in a pro- 
perly made spring it will possess the quality of isochronism, 
that is, its force will increase in proportion to the tension, and 
it will not exert any lateral pressure on the pivots. 

Britten says, it should be remembered that if the vibra- 
tions of a balance are to be isochronous the impulse must 
be delivered in the middle of its vibration, and that therefore 
no spring will be satisfacrory if the escapement is defective 
in this particular. 

The recognized authorities conflict considerably in their 
various theories in regard to adjustment to isochronism and 
particularly in regard to the length of spring. Immisch says 
that mere length has nothing to do with isochronism. Glas- 
gow contends that length has everything to do with it and 
that a spring too short, whatever its form, would make the 
short arcs of the balance vibration be performed in a less time 
than the long arcs, and a spring too long would have just the 
contrary effect. Charles Frodsham advanced the theory that 
every length of spring has its isochronous point. Britten 
declares that the length is all important; that a good length 
of spring for one variety of escapement is entirely unfitted for 
another variety. Saunier says that the discussion of the ques- 
tion whether short springs are preferable to long ones is a 
mere waste of time and can result in no good. In horology 
everything must be relative. Whatever be the escapement 
under consideration, it requires neither a long nor a short hair- 
spring, but one that is suited to its nature and mode of action, 
that is to say, the length must bear a definite relation to the 
extent of the arcs of vibration, etc. 

Owing to this conflict of opinion it is advisable that the 
student read the various arguments set forth in the works 
referred to above and form his own conclusions. 



ADJUSTMENT HEATER. 16 



ADJUSTMENT HEATER. The Simpson heater, 
shown in Fig. 2, will be found invaluable when adjusting 

movements to tem- 
perature. The va- 
riation of tempera- 
ture in this heater is 
one and one-half de-" 
drees in twenty our 
hours. It is designed 
to be heated by gas, 
the cost of heating 
being but about three 
cents in twenty-four 
hours. A small lamp 
can be used if the 
watchmaker has no 
gas at command. 

ALCOHOL OR 
BENZINE CUP. 

The watchmaker 
should keep the alco- 
hol and benzine on 
FlG - 2 - his bench in a glass 

cup having a tight-fitting cover to prevent evaporation and 

contamination with dust. It 

also adds to the appearance of 

his bench and is a great im- 
provement over an old saucer 

and bottle. The cup shown in 

Fig. 3 has a ground glass cover 

or stopper that fits tightly into 

the neck of the cup. 

ALCOHOL LAMP. The 

Clark patent simplicity lamp 
shown in Fig. 4, is a favorite 
one with American watchmak- 
ers. It has nine facets on the 





Fig. 3. 



17 



ALCOHOL LAMP. 




font that it may readily be adjusted to any required position. 
The wicks of alcohol lamps should not be too tight and the 
interior and exterior of the 
font should be kept free 
from dirt. The Clark lamp 
should not be filled more 
•than one-third full. The 
wick should be removed 
when it gets so short that it 
fails to reach well down into 
the alcohol. 

The Bush Self-Gen- 
erating Gas Blow-Pipe 
Lamp, shown in Fig. 5, is 
divided into two compart- 
ments, one for alcohol and Fig. 4. 
the other for benzine. Fill with alcohol at D and at E fill 
nearly full with benzine. Light the small burner at D, bring 

one of the tubes, A, B 
or C, to bear on the 
burner and above it as 
in cut; blow in rubber 
tube F and the gas 
formed by the action 
of blowing will be 
ignited. Empty out 
old benzine occasion- 
ally. Where a flame 
is desired still larger 
than that afforded by 
benzine, use gasoline. 
This lamp requires no 
more care than an 
ordinary lamp. 

The great advantage 




Fig. 5. 



of this 'lamp is that it leaves both hands free to manipulate 
the work, and that the size of the flame can be instantly 
regulated to suit the exigences of the case. 



ALLOY. 18 

ALLOY. A compound of two or more metals. It is 
usual to melt the less fusible metal first and add the more 
fusible. 

Alloys for Compensation Balances. Breguet used 
for his compensation balances the following alloy: Silver, 
two parts, by weight; copper, two parts; zinc, one part. 
First melt the silver and throw in the zinc, reduced to small 
pieces, stirring the metals and leaving it on the fire for as 
short a time as possible to prevent the volatilization of the 
latter metal; then pour it out and let it get cold. Melt the 
copper and add the cold alloy, stirring the three together until 
intimately mixed. Pour out, cut into pieces, and smelt anew 
to obtain a perfect incorporation. Be careful, however, to 
leave the alloy as short a time as possible over the fire, because 
the zinc dissipates easily. This alloy is hard, elastic, very 
ductile, and quickly smelts in the furnace. It does not stand 
much hammering. 

Alloy for Composition Files. These files, which are 
frequently used by watchmakers and other metal workers, 
for grinding and polishing, and the color of which resembles 
silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2 parts tin, 1 part zinc, 
1 part lead. They are cast in forms and treated upon the 
grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked 
with difficulty with the file. 

Aluminium Alloys. Aluminium is alloyed with many 
metals, but the most important are those with copper. Lange 
& Sons have obtained a patent in the United States for an 
alloy consisting of ninety-five parts of aluminium and five of 
copper, which is malleable and is used for clock springs. An 
alloy of ten parts of aluminium and ninety of copper is hard 
but nevertheless ductile. It takes a high polish and somewhat 
resembles gold. 

Aluminium Bronze. This alloy contains from 6 to 10 
per cent, of aluminium, and is prepared by fusing chemically- 
pure copper with aluminium. The standard bronze in use 
consists of ninety parts of copper to ten of aluminium. It 



19 ALLOY. 

gives sharp castings, is easier to work than steel, can be 
engraved, rolled into sheets or drawn into wire and when 
exposed to the air suffers less change than cast iron, steel, 
silver or brass. It can be soldered only with an aluminium 
alloy. 

Aluminium Silver. Aluminium and silver are easily 
alloyed and these alloys are more easily worked than silver 
although harder. An alloy of ninety-seven parts aluminium 
and three of silver is not affected by ammonium hydrosulphide 
and has a beautiful color. An alloy of ninety-five parts of 
aluminium and five of silver is white, elastic and hard. It is 
used for making blades of desert and fruit knives. 

Aluminium Gold. One part of aluminium to 99 of gold 
gives a metal the color of green gold, very hard but not 
ductile. An alloy of 5 parts of aluminium to 95 parts of gold 
gives an alloy that is nearly as brittle as glass. An alloy of 
10 parts of aluminium to 90 parts of gold is white, crystalline 
and brittle. An imitation of gold, used as a substitute for the 
precious metal in cheap jewelry, is made by fusing together 
5 to 1 Z A P ar ts of aluminium, 90 to 100 parts of copper and 
2^ of gold. The color of this alloy resembles gold so closely 
as to almost defy detection. 

Aluminium Zinc. Alloys of aluminium and zinc are very 
hard and take a beautiful polish. . An alloy of 97 parts of 
aluminium and 3 of zinc gives a result that is as white as the 
pure metal, harder than aluminium and very ductile. 

Artificial Gold. A metallic alloy, at present very exten- 
sively used in France as a substitute for gold, is composed 
of: Pure copper, 100 parts; zinc, or preferably tin, 17 
parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal-ammoniac, from 3 to 6 parts; 
quicklime, y^ part; tartar of commerce, 9 parts, are mixed as 
follows: The copper is first melted, and the magnesia, sal 
ammoniac, lime and tartar are then added separately and by 
degrees, in the form of powder; the whole is now briskly 
stirred for about one-half hour, so as to mix thoroughly, and 



ALLOY. 20 

then the zinc is added in small grains by throwing it on the 
surface and stirring until it is entirely fused; the crucible is 
then covered and fusion maintained for about 35 minutes. 
The surface is then skimmed and the alloy ready for coating. 
It has a fine grain, is malleable, and take a splendid polish. 
It does not corrode readily, and is an excellent substitute for 
gold for many purposes. When tarnished, its brilliancy can 
be restored by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed 
instead of zinc, the alloy will be more brilliant. 

Bell Metal. An alloy of copper and tin, in proportions 
varying from 66 to 80 per cent, of copper and the balance 
tin. 

Brass. ' An alloy consisting of about 65 parts of copper to 
35 parts of zinc. This proportion is varied according to the 
uses to which the alloy is to be put. See Bronzing, Plating 
and Coloring Metals. 

Britannia. This alloy as prepared by Koller consists of 
85.72 parts of tin, 10.34 of antimony, 0.78 of copper and 
2.91 of zinc. 

Chrysorine. This alloy is sometimes used for watch 
cas'es and parts of the movement. In color it closely resembles 
18 to 20 carat gold. It does not tarnish when exposed to the 
air and has a beautiful luster. It consists of 100 parts of 
copper and 50 of zinc. 

Fictitious Silver. No. 1: Silver, 1 oz.; nickel, ioz. 11 
dwts.; copper, 2 oz. 9dwts.; or No. 2, silver 3 oz.; nickel, 1 oz. 
11 dwts.; copper, 2 oz. 9 dwts.; spelter 10 dwts. 

Malleable Brass. A malleable brass is obtained by 
alloying 33 parts of copper and 25 parts zinc; the copper is 
first thrown into the pot, which is covered slightly and fused. 
As soon as the copper is smelted, the zinc, to be free from 
sulphur, is added, and cast into ingots. 



21 



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ALUMINIUM. 



22 



Gold Alloys used by Jewelers. 



Color. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Cadmium. 


Steel. 


Blue 


250 
500 
800 
857 
725 
750 
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600 
583 
583 
666 
750 
583 
666 








250 


Blue 








250 


Gray 








200 


Gray.. 


86 
275 
125 
166 
114 

67 
104 
200 

42 
250 
194 
146 
125 
333 






57 




~~~97~~ 
268 
146 
200 
375 
167 
139 
104 
292 


"I25" 
84 
43 




Green ._ 




Green 




Green _ _. 




Red 




Red 






Red, Pale 






Red, Very 






Yellow 






Yellow.. . 












Yellow, Dark 






Yellow,Pale 















Resembling" Silver. — The following alloys have a close 
resemblance to silver: Minargent is composed of 100 parts 
copper; 70 nickel; 1 aluminium and 5 of tungstate of iron. 
Trabak metal is composed of tin 87.5, nickel 5.5, antimony 5 
and bismuth 2. Warne metal is composed of tin 10, bismuth 
7, nickel 7 and cobalt 3. 

ALUMINIUM. Aluminum is an extremely light metal, 
rapidly coming into favor in America for all purposes of man- 
ufacture. Its weight is only about one-quarter that of silver. 
Its density is only 25.6. It withstands a very great heat and 
cools less rapidly than all other metals. It is particularly 
applicable where lightness combined with strength is desir- 
able, and being extremely ductile, is easily worked. See 
Alloys. 

AMALGAM. A compound of mercury with another 
metal; as an amalgam of tin. 

ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT. The recoil escapements 
used in most house clocks. A variety of the lever escapement 
made with a very wide impulse pin, is also known as an an- 
chor escapement. Authorities differ as to the inventor of the 
anchor escapement. Britten gives the credit of the invention 



23 ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT. 

to Dr. Hooke, whom he claims invented it in 1675, while 
Saunier says that the first anchor escapement appears to have 
been invented in 16S0, by Clement, a London clockmaker. 

Glasgow says: This escapement was the first step in the 
direction of securing isochronism in the vibrations of the pen- 
dulum, as it involved a longer pendulum, shorter arcs, a 
heavier pendulum bob and less motive power. Consequently 
this combination resulted in the pendulum being less con- 
trolled by the escapement, and therefore less influenced by 
variations in the impulse, although the escapement cannot be 
considered detached in the sense that a dead-beat one is. 

In Clement's escapement, the entrance pallet was convex 
and the exit pallet concave, and they were afterwards made 
flat, but in both cases they were found to cut away very fast, 
owing to the friction when the recoil takes place; to prevent 
this, they were subsequently made both convex, as shown in 
the Fig. 6 5 which lessens the angle, and consequently the 
friction at the recoils. 

There are still people, says Britten, who believe the recoil 
to be a better escapement than the dead beat — mainly because 
the former requires a greater variation of the driving power 
to affect the extent of the vibration of the pendulum than the 
latter does. But the matter is beyond argument; the recoil 
can be cheaply made, and is a useful escapement, but is 
unquestionably inferior to the dead beat for time-keeping. 

There is no rest or locking for the pallets, but directly the 
pendulum in its vibration allows a tooth, after giving impulse, 
to escape from the impulse face of one pallet, the course of 
the wheel is checked by the impulse face of the other pallet 
receiving a tooth. The effect of this may be seen on looking 
at the drawing (Fig. 6), where the pendulum, traveling to 
the right, has allowed a tooth to fall on the left-hand pallet. 
The pendulum, however, still continues its swing to the right, 
and in consequence the pallet pushes the wheel back, thus 
causing the recoil which gives the name to the escapement. 
It is only after the pendulum comes to rest and begins its 
excursion the other way that it gets any assistance from the 
wheel, and the difference between the forward motion of the 
wheel and its recoil forms the impulse. 



ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT. 24 

SETTING OUT THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Draw a circle representing the escape wheel, which we 
assume to have thirty teeth, of which the anchor embraces 
eight. Mark off the position of four teeth on each side of the 
centre one, and draw radial lines which will represent the 
backs of the teeth. 



Fig. 6. 

Note. — Space between one tooth and the next= 3 3 6 7>° = 12 ; 
and 8 spaces = 96 °. Then V =48° to be set off on each 
side of the centre. 

The distance of the pallet staff centre from the centre of 
escape wheel = radius of wheel x 1.4. From the pallet staff 



25 



ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT. 



center describe a circle whose radius = seven-tenths of the 
radius of escape wheel, that is, half the distance between the 
escape wheel and pallet staff centers. Tangents to this circle 
just touching the tips of the teeth already marked, as shown 
by dotted lines in the drawing would then form the faces of 




Fig. 7. 

the pallets if they were left flat. When a tooth has dropped 
off the right-hand pallet, which is the position of the escape- 
ment in the drawing, the amount of impulse is shown by the 
intersection of the other pallet in the wheel. The impulse, 
measured from the pallet staff center, is usually from 3 to 4 . 
3 



ANGULAR VELOCITY. 26 

The pallet faces are generally curved full in the middle, as 
shown in Fig. 6. The object of curving the pallets is to 
lessen the "pitting" which the wheel teeth make on the 
pallets. There will, however, be very little " pitting " if the 
wheels are made small and light, and there is not excessive 
drop to the escapement. 

The advantage of making the backs of the escape wheel 
teeth radial and the foresides curved, as shown in Fig. 6, is 
that if the pendulum gets excessive vibration the pallets butt 
against the roots of the teeth and the points are uninjured. 

There is another form of the recoil escapement often used 
in long-cased clocks, in which the anchor embraces ten teeth 
of the escape wheel, and the foresides of the teeth are radial. 
It is shown in Fig. 7. In other respects the construction is 
substantially the same as the one just described. 

ANGULAR VELOCITY. The angle through which 
an arm turning on its axis is displaced in a unit of time. It is 
entirely independent of the length of this arm The approxi- 
mate ratio of the angular velocities of the balances with the 
cylinder and (pocket) chionometer escapements in the same 
unit of time (one-fifth second when there are 18,000 vibrations 
per hour), is about 27o°:36o°. The velocity properly so 
called is the space transversed in a unit of time by the point 
under consideration (which in this case is taken on the circum- 
ference of gyration). For a given angular movement we 
obtain the approximate ratio of the velocities by multiplying 
each radius by the number of vibrations in a unit of time. — 
Saunter. 

ANNEALING. The process of heating metals and then 
manipulating them in order to increase their ductility. Gold, 
silver, copper and brass are annealed by beating them to red- 
ness and then plunging them in water, while steel is annealed 
by heating and then allowing it to cool slowly. 

ANODE. The positive pole of an electric battery; op- 
posed to cathode. 

ARBOR. An axle or spindle on which a wheel turns. 



27 ARC. 

ARC. Any given part of the circumference of a circle. 

ARCOGRAPH. An instrument sometimes used by 
watchmakers for drawing a circular arc without the use of a 
central point. 

ASSAY. To subject an ore, alloy or metallic compound 
to chemical examination in order to determine the amount of 
a particular metal contained in it. 

AUXILIARY. See Balance, 

BALANCE. The wheel in a watch, clock or chrono- 
meter which is kept in vibration by means of the escapement 
and which regulates the motion of the train. The size and 
weight of a balance are important factors in the time-keeping 
qualities of a watch although the dimensions of a balance are 
not criteria of the time in which the balance will vibrate. 
The balance is to a pocket time-piece what the pendulum is 
to the clock; although there are two essential points of 
difference. The time of vibration of a pendulum is unaffected 
by its mass, because every increase in that direction carries 
with it a proportional influence of gravity; but if we add to 
the mass of the balance we add nothing to the strength of 
the hairspring, but add to its load and therefore the vibra- 
tions become slower. Again, a pendulum of a given length, 
as long as it is kept at the same distance from the earth's 
center, will vibrate in the same time because the gravity is 
always the same; but the irregularity in the force of the hair- 
spring produces a like result in the vibration of the balance. 
Britten says there are three factors upon which the time of 
the vibration of the balance depends: 

i. The weight, or rather the mass, of the balance.* 
2. The distance of its center of gyration from the center 
of motion, or to speak roughly, the diameter of the balance. 
From these two factors the moment of inertia may be deducted. 

* The mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in that body, 
and is the same irrespective of the distance of the body from the center 
of the earth. But its weight, which is mass *r gravity, varies in differ- 
ent latitudes. 



BALANCE. 28 

3. The strength of the hair-spring, or more strictly its 
power to resist change of form. 

Balances are of two kinds, known as plain or uncut, and 
cut or compensation. The plain balance is only used in 
this country on the very cheapest variety of movements. The 
compensation balance is used on the better grade of watches. 
The plain balance is usually made of brass or steel while the 
compensation balance is made of steel and brass combined. 
Some English makers use gold for plain balances, it being 
denser than steel and not liable to rust or become magnetized. 
The process of compensation balance making as carried on in 
our American factories is as follows: A steel disc, one-eighth 
of an inch thick and five-eighths of an inch in diameter is 
first punched from a sheet of metal. It is then centered and 
drilled partially through, the indention serving as a guide in 
the operations to follow. A capsule of pure copper three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter is then made and in the center 
of this capsule the steel disc is lightly secured. A ring of 
brass one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness is then made and 
placed between the copper capsule and the blank, and the 
whole is fused together. It is then faced upon both sides. It 
is then placed in a lathe and cut away in the center until a 
a ring is formed of steel, which is lined or framed with brass. 
It then goes into the press, where two crescents are cut from 
it, leaving only the inner lining of the ring and the cross-bar 
of steel. The burr is then removed and the balance is ready 
to be drilled and tapped for the balance screws. This method 
of making balances is known as the " capsule method." 

The Expansion and Contraction of Balances. The 

American Waltham Watch Co. use a simple little contrivance 
shown at Fig. 8 for indicating the expansion and contraction 
of balances. It is composed of a steel disc, on one side of 
which a scale is etched and opposite the scale a hole is drilled 
and tapped to receive the screw that holds the balance. One 
of the screws of the balance to be tested is removed and the 
indicating needle is screwed in its place. The steel disc is held 
by means of a pair of sliding tongs over an alcohol lamp, or 
can be heated in any other way, and the expansion will be 



29 



BALANCE. 



indicated by the movement of the needle on the scale. Fig. 
9 illustrates the expansion and contraction of balances. With 
an increase of temperature the rim is bent inward, thus 
reducing the size of the balance. This is owing to the fact 
that brass expands more than steel, and in endeavoring to 

expand it bends the rim in- 
ward. The action is, of course, 
reversed by lowering the tem- 
perature below normal. Some 
adjusters spin a balance close 
to the flame of a lamp before 
using, in order to subject it to a 
higher temperature than it is 
likely to meet in use. The 
balance is then placed upon a 
cold iron plate and afterward 
fig. 8. tested for poise. The balance 

is then trued, if found necessary, and the operation is repeated 
until it is found to be in poise after heating. Britten says 
that it has been demonstrated that the loss in heat from the 
weakening of the hair spring is uniformly in proportion 
to the increase of temperature. The compensation balance, 
however, fails to meet the temperature error exactly, the rims 
expand a little too much with decrease of temperature, and 
with increase of temperature the contraction of the rims is 






ginal Position of Rim. 



Fig. 9. 

Position Under Extreme Cold. 




Position Under Extreme Heat, 



insufficient, consequently a watch or chronometer can be cor- 
rectly adjusted for temperature at two points only. Watches 
are usually adjusted at about 50 and 85 . In this range there 
would be what is called a middle temperature error of about 
two seconds in twenty-four hours with a steel hair-spring. 




BALANCE. 30 

The amount of the middle temperature error cannot be abso- 
lutely predicated, for in low temperatures, when the balance is 
larger in diameter, the arc of vibration is less than in high 
temperatures when the balance is 
smaller, and consequently its time of 
vibration is affected by the isoch- 
ronism or otherwise of the hair 
spring. Advantage is sometimes 
taken of this circumstance to lessen 
Fig. io. the middle temperature error by 

leaving the piece fast in the short arcs. To avoid middle 
temperature error in marine chronometers, various forms of 
compensation balances have been devised, and numberless 
additions or auxiliaries have been attached to the ordinary 
form of balance for the same purpose. Poole's auxiliary, 
shown in Fig. io, and Molyneaux's, shown in Fig. n, maybe 
taken to represent the two principles on which most auxil- 
iaries are constructed. Poole's consists of a piece of brass 
attached to the fixed ends of the rim and carrying a regulat- 
ing screw, the point of which checks the outward movement 
of the rim in low temperatures. Molyneaux's is attached to 
each end of the arm by a spring, the free 
ends of the rim acting on it in high tem- 
peratures only. Fig. 1 1 illustrates this auxil- 
iary when the temperature has been raised, 
/ ' \ M its free ends, to which the adjusting screws 

are attached, having approached nearer the 
Fig. ii. center of the balance, carrying with them 

the free ends of the auxiliary, so that the small projection no 
longer comes in contact with the short end of the balance rim, 
as it would in a temperature of 55 °. This auxiliary is made 
of steel. 

Sizes and Weights of Balances. The size and weight 
of the balance are two very important elements in the timing 
of a watch and especially in adjusting to positions. The rules 
governing the sizes and weights of balances, says Mr. Chas. 
Reiss, are of a complex nature, and though positive are diffi- 
cult of application on account of the impracticability of 




31 BALANCE. 

determining the value of the elements on which we have to 
base our calculations. These elements are the main-spring or 
motive power, the hairspring representing the force of gravity 
on the pendulum, momentum and friction. The relation of 
the motive power or the main-spring to the subject under 
discussion lies first in the necessary proportion between it and 
the amount of tension of the spring to be overcome, according 
to the extent and number of vibrations aimed at; and, second, 
to that of friction affecting the motion of the balance and 
incidental to it. In an 18,000 train the main-spring has to 
overcome resistance of the hairspring for 432,000 vibrations 
daily. The hairspring having its force established by the 
relative force of the motive power circumscribes the propor- 
tions of the mass called balance and is so co-agent for over- 
coming friction. 

Momentum overcomes some of the elastic force of the 
spring and friction. It is the force of a body in motion and 
is equal to the weight of the body multiplied by its velocity. 
Velocity in a balance is represented by its circumference, a 
given point in which travels a given distance in a given time. 
Weight is that contained in its rim. A balance is said to have 
more or less momentum in proportion, as it retains force im- 
parted to it by impulsion. If a watch has a balance with 
which it has been brought to time, and this is changed to one- 
half the size, it requires to be four times as heavy, because its 
weight is then only half the distance from the center, and any 
given point in its circumference has only half the distance to 
travel. On the other hand, a balance twice the size, would 
have one-fourth the weight. In the first case the balance 
would have twice as much momentum as the original one, 
because if we multiply the weight by the velocity we have a 
product twice as great. In the latter case a like operation 
would give a product half as great as in the original balance. 

It follows that the smaller and heavier a balance the more 
momentum, and vice versa the less momentum it has, always 
on condition that the hair-spring controls both equally. 
Friction, affecting the vibration of the balance, is that of the 
pivots on which it moves and that of the escapement. It is 



BALANCE. 32 

in proportion to the force with which two surfaces are pressed 
together and their area. In a balance, weight is synonymous 
with pressure, area is represented by the size of its pivots 
and the thickness of the pivot holes. The first, pivot fric- 
tion, is continuous and incidental and is overcome by combined 
forces, the motive power, the elasticity of the hair-spring, 
and the momentum of the balance. The latter, or escapement 
friction, is intermitting and is overcome by contending forces, 
the hair-spring and the momentum of the balance on one 
side and the motive power on the other. 

Having it in our power, as shown above, to obtain the 
desired momentum of the balance by differing relative pressure 
and diameter, we can regulate pivot friction within certain 
limits and distribute the labor of overcoming it, among the 
co-operative forces, in such a manner that the proportions of 
such distributions shall not be disturbed during their (forces) 
increase or decrease. Incidental pivot friction is that caused by 
the contact of the balance with the escapement. Escapement 
friction is that caused by the unlocking on the impulse. 
The first causes retardation, the latter acceleration in the 
motion of the balance, regardless of isochronism. It is easy 
to comprehend that a heavy balance would, by its greater 
momentum, unlock the escapement with less retardation than 
a light one; but, on the other hand, the acceleration by the 
impulse would be less also; and with a varying motive power 
a disturbing element would be introduced by a change in the 
relative proportions of these forces, the momentum of the 
balance decreasing or increasing faster than the motive power, 
constituting as it does relatively a more variable force. In 
argument the reverse of this might be advanced in regard to 
a balance which is too light. Without, however, entering 
further into the subject it is plain how the rate of a watch 
under such conditions might be affected after being apparently 
adjusted in stationary positions by being used on a locomo- 
tive or under conditions where external disturbances should 
lessen the extent of vibration, and making the contact between 
the balance and the escapement of less duration. 



33 BALANCE. 

The almost universal abandonment of watches with uniform 
motive power and the introduction of stem-winders with 
going barrels, invest the subject with special interest; and as 
stated in the beginning, applying rules for defining these 
desirable proportions being impracticable, the only solution of 
the problem which remains to us is the study by observation 
of certain symptoms which do exist, to determine that which 
by other means cannot be done. During the progress of horo- 
logy similar difficulties had to be met in every kind of watch 
which happened to be in use. The old Verge watch had its 
balance proportioned thus; that it could lie inside in the main- 
spring barrel, and the watch, when set going without a bal- 
ance spring, would indicate by the hand on the dial a pro- 
gress of twenty-seven and one-half minutes during one hour 
running. It was said that under these circumstances it would 
be least affected by inequalities of the motive power, and the 
verge would not be cut by the escape wheel. The balance 
in the Cylinder watch was to be sized according to the 
proportion of the train, each successive wheel to be one-half 
smaller than the preceding one and the balance to be twice 
the size of the escape wheel, the weight to be determined 
by the equal running of the watch during all the changes of 
an unequal motive power. The cutting of the steel pallets in 
Duplex watches or chronometers is caused more by too heavy 
balances than by any other defect in their parts. It might be 
well to note the following, which is very important and too 
often neglected, and that is the arrangement of the main- 
spring in the barrel so as to avoid coil friction, and the smallest 
advantage of the old Fusee watch was not the facility of 
obtaining five turns of the fusee to three or three and one- 
half of the main-spring, but being enabled thereby to arrange 
the latter around a small arbor in such a manner that the 
coils never touched, insuring a smooth motive power and 
lessening the chances of breakage beyond estimation. 

Poising the Balance. — In merely poising a balance for 
a cheap movement there is no great diffiulty, that is, putting 
it in equipoise sufficient for the reasonable good performance 



BALANCE. 



34 



of the movement, but to well and thoroughly poise for a 
high grade of movement embraces means and methods not 
necessary in the first mentioned. In a cheap balance a high 
degree of accuracy is not expected, and so the manipulations 
are in the poising simple, provided all the parts are in condi- 
tion to admit of poising. The following will be about all the 
conditions and means used generally: In the outset the 
balance should be in poise without its staff, and this is ap- 
proximated before the staff is in by putting into the staff 
socket in the arm a piece of true wire, sufficiently tight to 
allow of the balance being held on to it with friction, so that 
the balance can be trued in the flat by the fingers or with 
tweezers and remain while poising on the parallel bars. 

Fig. 12 illustrates a form of tweezers made especially for 
balance truing. To here explain the parallel bars and give a 
few points regarding the essential features will be well, and 

help to make 
clear some 
points that 
follow in the 
poising i n - 
fig. 12. structions. 

The parallel bars for the use of watch re- 
pairers with the following features will be 
suited to all the cases met with: The two 
bars, if made of steel, for instance, must have 
only the top edges on which the pivots rest 
made of this metal and the less the better. 
The top edge should not be over T fa of an 
inch thick and the bar 3^ or one inch long. 
The bars must have the guides that carry 
them move them open or shut for different 
lengths of staffs, and keep the bars parallel during the move- 
ments. The bars after they are in their places and securely 
fastened to the stand carrying them, must be ground true, 
straight and parallel, on a flat piece of glass (plate glass is the 
best), charged with emery of about 140, with oil sufficient to 
make a paste. The glass can be held and used as a file or the 



35 BALANCE. 

bars can be held down on the glass and moved about with a 
circular stroke, but if the stand is large and heavy this opera- 
tion will not be readily performed with good results. The 
main reason for using the glass referred to, is that it is a ready 
way of getting a grinding bed comparatively true without 
labor or preparation. A flat metal surface, marble or stone- 
ware, would answer well, but would not be as readily had. 
After the emery has ground the surfaces true, clean off all the 
emery and use fine oil stone powder or pumice stone; clean, 
and follow the pumice stone with any polishing powder, or 
follow the pumice stone with a large and true burnishing file, 
keeping the surface wet slightly. In making the parallel 
edges, the object is to give them a perfectly straight surface 
on the edge and highly polished. These parallels are proba- 
bly best made of bell metal, as there is then no danger of their 
being affected or accumulating magnetism. In the construc- 
tion of a poising tool, to avoid the use of iron or steel in its 
make up, will be found the most satisfactory, as then mag- 
netism will not be a disturbing element that it might other- 
wise be. The whole tool should be heavy and low and stand 
on the bench firmly, and if a fine one have two level vials set 
in its base to level up the parallels with, before using. With 
a level bench and a tool made so that the feet are parallel to 
the top edge of the parallels, there will be little trouble in the 
balance rolling by gravity while poising. There are a great 
variety of poising tools and any that have the parallel bars true 
and straight and parallel to one another, readily adjusted for 
distance, and have a firm and heavy stand, will be easily and 
satisfactorily handled. 

Holes for the staff pivots are not good for poising, although 
jeweled, as the pivots must turn in them with a slipping action, 
whereas they roll without slip or friction on the parallels. The 
extreme top edge of the parallels, if of hard substance, can be 
made as thin as the *fo$- of an inch and be all the better, as 
will be explained. The plain straight portion of a conical 
pivot of a fine staff is frequently not over the t&t of an inch 
long, and this is the part of the pivot that is to be exactly con- 
centric with the center of gravity of the balance after poising 



BALANCE. 36 

is accomplished and is that part of the pivot that rests on the 
jewel. Now, from this it will be seen that the thickness of 
the parallels cannot be great, not over the zbv of an inch, as 
the conical part of the pivot must not touch the parallel, and 
the end of the pivot should be out- 
side of the parallel. Fig. 13 will 



0^ 



show the situation and give the best 

idea. After the balance has been 

trued on the wire, then test on the 

straight edge, and if the balance rolls IG ' I3 

freely and gravitates, then lighten it on the down or heavy 

side. Or in the event that the balance is rather light it may 

be advisable to weight it on the top or light side. 

It will take a little practice to poise in this first operation, 
and there are several points to look at. First, if the balance 
is a heavy one, then in poising take away weight; second, if 
a plain (not comp.) remove little bits from the under side of 
the rim with a graver or drill; if very light, add weight by 
small pins being added by drilling in the rim and driving in 
several pins and then filing away till poised. The pins must 
be put into the rim at such points as are indicated by the cir- 
cumstances. Soft solder, if used on the under side of a plain 
balance, is very easily handled, but the risk from the soldering 
fluid is great and requires great care in cleaning, but when all 
is well done, it serves a good purpose. As the wire on which 
the balance is hung is large in diameter, the poising will not 
be very delicate, but can be made good enough for the end 
served. In poising a compensating balance, the balance must 
be hung on a wire with each end pointed, turned to points, so 
that the wire can be held in the calipers and the balance made 
true in the round.* Set the gauge of the calipers so that the 
rim at the end of one arm shall exactly conclude with it, and 
then turn the balance slowly under the gauge and see if the 
rim turns truly under it. If not true, bend in or out with the 
fingers and try by gauge till the balance will turn true in the 
round, then put onto the parallels and poise as in case of the 
plain balance, but alter the weight with the screws. The 

*See Gauges- 



37 BALANCE. 

screws, that are at the bottom can be put into a split chuck 
and a little turned away from the under side of the head, or a 
washer* can be put under the head of the top screw, and this 
method pursued till a reasonably fine poising is obtained. In 
these operations all the points relating should be well con- 
sidered, and not make moves without method and good rea- 
sons. Care is required all through poising in all its branches. 
These washers are very convenient to use in cases where a 
balance requires a little more weight, and where it is not ad- 
visable to change the hairspring or regulator when regulating 
to time, and in such cases must be put under the heads of the 
screws at the ends of the arms. All things being equal, in 
poising a weighted balance, it is better to add a little weight 
than take away any, by turning the heads of screws as de- 
scribed, as then the balance is not in any way injured, and if it 
was all correct when found, although indications led to other 
conclusions, by removing a washer or two the balance would 
be left as original and much trouble saved in trying to remedy 
a mistake. Never make any changes in a fine compensated 
balance as in all probability it was correct when made and 
some injudicious handling to blame for any defect. After a 
balance has been trued in the calipers as described, so that the 
rim is truly concentric with the hole in the arm, it should if it 
has not been injured, be virtually in poise, but if it is not, add 
washers to the screws on the light side and by them try to 
poise it rather than by lessening the weight. Many times, 
taking a screw from the heavy side and putting it in place of 
one on the light and the light in place of the heavy, will tend 
to an equilibrium, and so far as it does is so much gain. In 
removing the screws in a compensating balance, care must be 
used when they are replaced to see that they are left just tight 
enough to stay in place and at the same time not bind the head 
hard down on the rim. Screws badly handled in this respect 
may derange the compensation, also the poising. All the screws 
of a balance, except those at the ends of the arms and occa- 
sionally a pair at the quarters, should be down heads, close to 
the rim. The others can be turned in and out at pleasure to 



*See Balance Screw Washer. 



BALANCE. 38 

poise or for timing, as required. With a balance with a screw 
at each end of the arm, it is best not to move them in or out in 
poising, but proceed as described and leave these screws to be 
moved in timing afterward, if required, as it helps make that 
operation easy. When a balance has four screws they may be 
moved to do all the poising and afterward any pair opposite, 
or the whole, may be moved in timing and not disturb the 
poising. A compensating balance with four screws as de- 
scribed is much the easiest balance to handle, for by these 
screws the finer adjustments in poising and timing can be easily 
performed with greater certainty than by the old methods as 
described. 

The balance staff is a very important element in poising and 
its pivots should be perfect, that is, perfect cylinders, and all 
that part that touches the hole jewel be of equal diameter. 
By referring to cut of staff it will be seen that the end after 
leaving the cone is straight, of equal diameter throughout its 
whole length, and this is the shape of all staff pivots at that 
point riding in the jewel holes, no matter what curve or shape 
may be given to the balance of the pivot. When there is a 
different diameter in the top and bottom pivots they are each 
true cylinders and their cylindrical diameters are parallel to 
each other and to the axis of the staff. When pivots are bent 
or out of parallel with the axis of the staff they are then not 
in condition to make poising possible, as a bent pivot will make 
a balance gravitate and act as though out of poise in itself, and 
with a bent pivot, poising can only be approximately attained. 
Perfectly cylindrical and parallel pivots to a staff are, in pois- 
ing, a very essential feature, and without which poising can- 
not be attained. 

When a balance has been poised as indicated and a staff 
made and fitted with perfectly cylindrical and parallel pivots, 
proceed as follows, and there will be little to do to complete 
the operation: First put the balance on the staff with a hol- 
low punch and only press it on sufficiently to hold for prelimi- 
nary tests; then place on the parallels of the poiser and exam- 
ine; should the balance appear in poise, it must not be taken 
for granted that it is so, but try a very slight jar given the 



39 BALANCE. 

poising tool, like rubbing over the bottom of the frame an old 
file, which will impart to it a very slight vibration, and if the 
balance is actually out, it will roll and then remain with the 
heavy side down. If a jar, such as a series of taps with a ham- 
mer, be given, the balance will rotate and stop for an instant 
and then rotate again, and finally jar off the bars and the 
operation will not prove anything. The jar is such that the 
balance raises up bodily, when made with the file, and then 
falls down exactly on the same place on the parallels, rather 
the pivots come to rest always at the same point and it will be 
seen by this means that if any point of the rim is in reality 
heavier from gravity, that it will by the momentum imparted, 
fall, overcoming the pivot friction and finally seek a point in 
a direct line under the staff. 

Repeated movements of a balance while on the parallels 
are necessary, together with great cleanliness of pivots 
and parallels, to thoroughly ascertain the true poised 
condition of the balance. When it is ascertained that a bal- 
ance is out of poise or has a heavy side, punch out the staff 
and put the balance again on it only turned just one-half way 
around, and repeat as above. In this way a staff can be put 
into a balance to the best advantage and such little items all 
tend to save time and make easy the whole handling. When 
the best position is found for the staff, stake it, and true in the 
flat, and test again on the bars, and if necessary make further 
changes as above to affect a poise. When a balance is in 
poise and a staff perfectly true as has been described, and well 
staked on, it will in the most cases be found poised and 
nothing further to do. After putting on the roller it is advis- 
able to test again for position, but it is generally unnecessary, 
as this will not disturb the poising only in exceptional cases. 
By staking on the roller too tight the staff may be bent and 
may destroy the poise. 

Care is necessary in handling a balance for any purpose, 
not to bend the rim, soil or corrode the metal and finish, and 
in making slight alterations in the curve of the rim, not to 
bend it at the holes and so destroy its true circle and injure 
the strength of the metal and change its adjustment. 



BALANCE. 40 

Any one, after poising a balance and testing the movement 
carefully in different positions, will in many cases be aware of 
quite a change of rate in the changes of position, and this, at 
the first thought, would seem to rather reflect on the accuracy 
of the posing; but it will be found to occur at times with the 
most carefully poised balance, and that the operation of pois- 
ing by the parallels does not comprehend the whole, nor the 
very nicer requirements. In any case, the most careful me- 
chanical posing must be attended to first, before any opera- 
tions of a more delicate nature are attempted. In short, the 
parallels are to be used in the most delicate methods, but pre- 
cede the others. When a movement is placed in its case and 
hung up, after poising on the parallels, its rate should be care- 
fully noted for a given time, then it should be just reversed 
and set up with the pendant down, when it will be found, as 
a rule, that after a trial of same duration as the first, that the 
rate will not be the same. Now, when this occurs in a fine 
movement, it will be advisable to investigate all the parts 
which in any way relate to this action. Both hole jewels 
must be examined, for finish, thickness and truth of the bore; 
the roller jewel and the lever-fork examined ; guard pin and 
its action with the table; the hairspring and all its relations 
and connections; the balance must be removed and then the 
lever, and the lever placed on the parallels by its staff pivots, 
as in the balance, and tested for poising. The lever should, 
when placed on the parallels, lay horizontal, like the beam of 
pan scales, and not swing or hang either end down; the 
weight should be removed from the heavy end, in such an 
event, until the lever will lie as indicated. Levers can be, and 
are made, that will stand in any position, like a poised bal- 
ance, but it will, in most cases, be difficult to poise a lever for 
any position other than horizontal. Next, the escape wheel 
must be poised so that it will perform as a poised balance, 
when on the parallels; lever and escape jewels examined, as 
in those of the balance staff. 

After all has been so far attended to, and the parts in place 
again, the balance must stand, when the mainspring is entirely 
run down, with its arms either perpendicular or horizontal; 



41 BALANCE. 

with a movement, whose balance is near the center, the arms 
can stand pointing to 6 and 12, or 3 and 9, as the most con- 
venient. In requiring balance arms to stand in some fixed 
relation to prominent points of the movement, the manipula- 
tions are greatly facilitated, though any position the arms may 
chance to have will not interfere with the result, but a more 
expert hand will be required to get along with ease and cer- 
tainty. 

When all the foregoing operations are attended to, hang up 
the watch and take its rate for 12 hours, with main spring 
fully wound up; then reverse its position, with mainspring 
wound up, and test for another 12 hours. On examination, if 
there should be any considerable variation in the rates in the 
two positions, say 10 to 15 seconds, then proceed by changing 
the screws as follows: In a case where the watch loses, when 
hanging, it indicates that a screw of the balance nearest to 12 
or 6, when the movement is entirely run down, must be moved 
a very little in or out. In this case, it is fair to suppose that 
the balance is too heavy on the side nearest 6 — that this side 
gravitates, and to an extent acts like a pendulum. Assuming 
this to be the case, turn the lower screw in and the upper one 
out, where there are four timing screws, and where not, wash- 
ers may be added to the top screw, and the two trials repeated. 
After trial, if the result is improved, then the lower screw 
may be made a little lighter, but not at the first trial. In the 
first trials the balance should not be altered in weight, as 
indications in these manipulations are changed or modified by 
conditions not yet mentioned. 

We will assume that the balance has four screws, and when 
one is turned in and the other out, as indicated, and the end 
attained, then the watch is to be placed with 3 or 9 up, and two 
trials made, as in the first, and the same method used, if indi- 
cations are similar. 

When the handling of the balance has been correctly done, 
the poising will be found to equalize the rates of the different 
positions, and the total performance improved. There is, of 
course, many chances for mismoves, but with caution they will 
do no harm, for if the balance is not changed other than a 
change in distribution of its weights, the act of restoring will 
3 



BALANCE. 42 

be merely setting all the screws back to the position they were 
when poised by the parallels, and then proceed again on a new 
method, reversing the first, and then gradually it will be made 
clear to the most inexperienced, remembering that what held 
good in one case may not in another, and that various cases 
are only compassed by trial, and that the indications in the one 
may be just reversed in the other. 

Instead of changing the lower screw as previously sug- 
gested, another trial is to be made with 12 down, and the rate 
taken for the same period as for 6 down, and the two com- 
pared. Now if the watch maintains its former record it is 
pretty good evidence that the two rates will be its rates for 
these two positions, and then the alterations may be made. 
Now, while hanging in this case the watch lost, 6 down, and 
relatively gained with 12 up, and a very natural conclusion 
would be that if losing with 6 down that the lower side of the 
balance would be the heaviest, but such is not the case, but the 
indications are that the upper side is the heaviest, and that the 
screw there should be turned in, and that the lower one may 
or may not be changed. Change the top screw first, in this 
case, and then make another trial and compare with the first* 
In all average cases, after changing the screw, the two rates 
would be found to be closer than in the first trial, and this 
will give a pretty good index of how to proceed. The phil- 
osophy of the action is the same as that of the action of the 
musical measuring instrument used to beat music measures 
called a metronome. It has a short pendulum with the rod 
prolonged above the shaft that it swings on, and on the upper 
end of this rod is a small weight that slides up and down and 
so regulates the beats. The position of this weight being 
above the center of motion has a very great control of the 
vibrations and controls them for a wide range. For instance^ 
the whole pendulum of one of these instruments is not over 2 
or 2j^ inches long, but with the little counter weight it can 
be made to beat seconds and slower measures, which could 
not be accomplished with anything short of a 39 inch pendu- 
lum and over. Then move the screw as already indicated^ 
keeping in mind the compared pendulum action and its 
philosophy. 



43 BALANCE. 

Gravitating on the principle of the simple pendulum is not 
the whole problem in moving the screws of the balance, but 
they embrace the philosophy of the instrument described,, 
and this must be kept in mind in the handling. In experi- 
ments it will be found that a screw moved at the top of a bal- 
ance, will make twice as much changing in the rate as the 
same movement of a screw at the bottom. Hanging up a 
watch and turning out the lower screw one-half a turn, and 
the rate will be, for instance, ten seconds slow in six hours. 
Now put up just reversed, and for the next six hours the 
watch will be found twenty seconds slow or more. Now, if 
we proceed in this case on the simple pendulum philosophy 
we should make a mistake in moving the screws. 

In practice it is not necessary to make only tests for 3 and 
9, assuming we have an open face watch. First, regulate on 
full spring for 6 or 8 hours hanging, and when well regu- 
lated place the watch 3 up and then 9 for the same period on 
full spring, and if any material change in rate in the two last,, 
then move the screw as already indicated, keeping in mind 
the compound action and its philosophy. 

The handling of the screws in poising on the parallels and 
in the running watch are for some indications just reversed,, 
and this is due to the action of lever and hairspring on the 
balance, with gravity in one case and to gravity alone in the 
other. In experimenting with the running watch always 
wind fully up for each trial, and periods of six to eight hours 
will be found the most convenient. The upper coils of a 
mainspring are much the most equal in power, and conse- 
quently give best results ; that is, the fourth, fifth and sixth 
turns of a spring are much nearer each other in strength than 
are the second, third and fourth. If a balance is perfectly 
poised mechanically, and the whole train in perfect mechanical 
poise and condition, then the running watch should not give 
any very considerable difference in rate in four positions, but 
as this is not the case generally there will be a change of rate 
in the positions and the balance can be then manipulated to 
correct the error, although it in itself may not be at fault. 
The reason for not testing a watch for the whole range of 



BALANCE ARC. 44 

four positions, is that in the pocket, a watch is not supposed to 
get into a position with the stem down, three and nine are apt 
to be up and down, and so with twelve are the three positions 
used. The isochronal condition of the hairspring is apt to 
make trouble in these experiments, and this is another reason 
for using full spring invariably. The motion and its extent 
of the balance is another element in the matter, and any 
movement when in perfect poise for a balance motion of ^ 
of a revolution, each side of the center or dead point (1^ 
revolution) would not be found in as accurate poise for ^ of a 
revolution. A balance making one and a half revolutions, to 
a certain extent, is self- correcting, as will be seen, and is 
to be preferred to any other movement, for if any point of the 
rim is out of poise then the fault is brought just opposite in 
each excursion, and so does not relatively gravitate. Owing 
to the fusee, an English lever with a balance making one 
and one-half revolutions, is the highest form of movement for 
accurate adjustments of any kind, and so is the easiest to 
realize perfect poising. The American watch is so uniformly 
well and evenly made by machinery that poising is in it 
quite easy, and much more so than in foreign makes. A 
Waltham movement that I tested, just as it left the factory, 
only changed its rate about three seconds for the four posi- 
tions. This could not be realized in any medium grade of 
foreign watch, and I presume this is not a single case, but 
probably rather a type. The American movement is made 
mechanically so near perfection that the watch maker will 
find poising a balance comparatively easy, and that what he 
finds to hold good in one case will be pretty sure to in an- 
other, due to this mechanical perfection. J. L. F. 

BALANCE ARC. That part of the vibration of a bal- 
ance in which it is connected with the train, used only in ref 
ence to detached escapements. 

BALANCE BRIDGE OR COCK. The standard that 
holds the top pivot of the balance in an upright position. In 
some of the old English and French full plate watches the 



45 



BALANCE PROTECTOR. 





balance cock was spread out to cover the entire balance, as 

shown in Fig. 14, and was 
sometimes artistically wrought 
and set with precious stones. 

BALANCE PROTEC- 
TOR. No matter how care- 
ful a person may be, accidents 
will happen, and the least ac- 
cident to a 
FlG - I4, compensa- 

tion balance gives the workman consider- 
able trouble. The Arrick patent balance 
protector, Fig. 15, is intended for guarding 
balances from contact with turning tools, 
polishers and the hand rest, while work is 
being done upon the pivots. The staff is 
passed through the hole in the protector fig. 15. 

and held in a wire chuck, and the protector is secured to 
the arms of the balance by two screws. The Bullock pro- 
tector, shown 
in Fig. 16, is 
designed to 
protect the bal- 
ance and other 
wheels from 
Fig. 16. oHfe^ ' heat while 

drawing the temper from staff or pinion for the purpose of 
pivoting. 

BALANCE SCREW WASHERS. All watch ad- 
justers and expert repairers time their watches by the balance 
screws, without unpinning the hair spring, and have their 
regulator in the center. After the curve of the hair spring is 
once correct it should never be let out or taken up. The 
portion of the spring where it is pinned is naturally stiffer and 
often abruptly bent to make the first coil conform to the stud 
and regulator. In unpinning the spring this curve is nec- 
essarily altered and the spring thrown out of the center, the 




BALANCE STAFF. 46 

heat and cold adjustment is altered and the isochronal adjust 
ment often entirely destroyed. 

Where a watch has timing or quarter screws and they move 
in or out friction tight, you can very soon bring your watch 
to time without molesting the spring and have the regulator 
in the center, and also poise by these screws. Very often some 
of these timing screws are so tight that there is danger of 
twisting them off. You will also find that two-thirds of the 
watches of the best makes do not have timing screws. In this 
case time by a pair of screws opposite the balance arms. If it 
runs too slow lighten an opposite pair of screws (just men- 
tioned) in a split chuck or file in the slot with slotting file. If 
it runs too fast put a pair of washers under the screws near the 
balance arms, or four at right angles or more under other 
screws. Whatever may be required in poising put the re- 
quired amount on the light side of the balance rim. Do not 
tamper with an adjusted hair-spring or any other. If you are 
anxious to do your work quickly and accurately compare your 
seconds hand with that of the regulator. See Poising the 
Balance. 

BALANCE SPRING. See Hair Spring. 

BALANCE STAFF. The axis or staff to which the 
balance is attached. In some makes of watches the balance 
staff and colet are one piece, while in others the colet is made 
of brass and is fitted tightly to the staff. 

Making a New Staff. — It is a very common thing for 
American workmen, especially those who reside in the large 
cities, to depend upon the stock of the material dealer for 
their staffs. The country watchmaker must, however, rely 
upon his mechanical ability, and even in the large cities the 
workman will have to make his own staffs when repairing 
many foreign watches. The following instructions relate 
more particularly to staffs for American watches, though they 
may be applied to foreign watches as well. Before proceed- 
ing further I would call the attention of the trade to a most 
valuable series of essays on the balance staff published in the 



47 BALANCE STAFF. 

columns of The American Jeweler, and would advise those 
interested to read them carefully.* 

The material used should be of the best, say Stubb's steel 
wire, a little larger in diameter than the largest part of the 
staff and a trifle longer that the old one. A wire that fits the 
No. 45 hole in the pinion guage will be about right in the 
majority of cases. Put this in the split chuck of your lathe, 
if you use an American lathe, and rough it out to the form 
shown at B in Fig. 17. If you use a ^ A ^ -g 

Swiss or wax-chuck lathe, the form of 
chuck shown at A, Fig. 17, will be 



CD OZ^O 



S H" 



found very useful. f It is made from a FlG " I7 " 

piece of brass rod, threaded to fit the lathe spindle and bored 
out to receive the work, which is held by set screws, three or 
four at each end of the chuck. By the aid of these screws 
the work may be held very firmly and yet can easily be 
brought to center. 

After bringing the work to the general form of the staff, 
in the rough, remove from the lathe, smear with soap and 
harden by heating to a cherry red and plunging endwise into 
oil. Re-chuck in the lathe, and while revolving, whiten by 
applying a No. 000 emery buff so that you may observe the 
color while drawing the temper. Now place the roughed- 
out blank in the bluing pan, and draw to a deep blue in color. 

The heights may be taken from the old staff providing it 
was not faulty and is at hand, but all things considered it is 
better to make your measurements and construct the new 
staff independent of the old one. A simple tool, and one 
which any wachmaker can make, is ^ P\ c T\ 

shown in Fig. 18. It will be found D —= \ ==^j™^j 



very convenient in taking the mea- 
surements or heights of a staff.J It 
consists of a hollow sleeve A, terminating in a foot B. 

* Making and Replacing the Balance Staff, a series of seventeen 
essays published in The American Jeweler for December, 1888, and 
January to September, 1889, inclusive. The illustrations are from these 
essays. 

f From the essay by "Pasadena," American Jeweler March, 1889. 

\ Other measuring instruments for this purpose will be found under 
Guages. 



BALANCE STAFF. 



48 



Fig. 19. 



Through this is screwed the rod C, terminating in a pivot Z>, 
which is small enough to enter the smallest jewel. To ascer- 
tain the right height for the roller, place it upon the foot B, 
indicated in Fig. 19, and set the pivot of 

the tool in the foot jewel, and adjust the £ 

screw until the roller is in the proper 
relation to the lever fork as shown in 
the illustration. In Fig. 19 the potence 
and plate of the watch are shown in sec- 
tion at A. The roller is indicated at c 
and the lever fork at d. After the ad- 
justing of the roller is completed, remove 
the tool and apply it to the rough staff as indicated in Fig. 
f\ 20, at A, and the point at which the seat for 

ctj^^^ J" * the roller should be cut will be shown. In 
order to ascertain the height of the balance, 
apply the gauge as before and bring the point 

B e, so as to give sufficient clearance below the 

c O =3 ' / plate as indicated by the dotted lines at B, Fig. 

Fig. 20. l 9> Then apply the gauge to the work as in- 
dicated at B, Fig. 20, and turn the balance seat 
at the point indicated. The diameter of the seat for the roller, 
balance and hairspring collet, can be taken from the old staff, 
or guage the holes with a taper arbor or a round broach, 
and then take the size from the broach with calipers. 

The diameter of the lower pivot should be taken from the 
jewel, and the ordinary pivot gauge when used in connection 
with a round pivot broach is all that is necessary even for the 
finest work. At ^4, in Fig. 21, is 
shown the gauge, each division of 
which corresponds to about j^trs 
of an inch. Slip the jewel on the 

broach as far as it will go without - 1 — ° <i > 

forcing, as shown at B, Fig. 21, fig. 21. 

and then take the size of the 

broach, close up to the jewel, by means of the slit in the 

guage. This will not give you the exact size of the jewel 

hole, but will be just enough smaller to allow of the proper 

freedom of the pivot. 









A 

1 ! 1 1 






1 


1 


III 


MINI 111 1 1 1 






1 




III 


MM 11 III 1 li 




1 


1 





49 



BALANCE STAFF. 



The best shape for the pivots is shown in Fig. 



22, known 



1 



- — h ^ as conical pivots; the straight portion 
^1^. — : — ' of the pivot which enters the jewel hole 



Fig. 22. 



A 



A 




being truly cylindrical and about ifo> 
of an inch long. 
Many very good workmen employ but one graven for per- 
forming the entire work, but it is better to have at least three, 
similar in shape to those shown in Fig. 23; A for turning the 
staff down in 
the rough, B 
for undercut- 
ting, and C 
for turning 
the conical 
shoulders o f 
the pivots. A 
graver like 
that shown 
at D will be fig. 23. 

found excellent for beginners and others who find it difficult 
to turn the shoulder square and at right angles to the staff E, 
without leaving a groove in one or the other. The all im- 
portant thing is to keep the gravers sharp. Upon the least 
sign of their not cutting, stop the work and sharpen them. 

Next in importance is the position in which the graver is 
applied to the work. It must, under all circumstances, cut 
and not scrape. If held as shown at A, Fig. 24, it will cut a 
clean shaving, while if applied as at B, it will only scrape. 

If held as shown at C, the force of 
the cut will be in the direction of 
the hand, as indicated by the arrow. 
If the point should catch from 



O 



O 



^T 



C3 



c^ 0% 



Fig. 24. 



any cause, the hand would yield 
and no harm would be done, while 

if held as at Z>, the force of the A g 

cut would be downward upon thecf^J^v* c O = =3^2 ==::: ==^r 

rest, as indicated by the arrow, 

and the rest being unyielding 

catching would be dangerous. 



BALANCE STAFF. 50 

The roughing out should be done with the point of the 
graver held as at C, Fig. 24, and then finished with the edge 
held diagonally as at A, Fig. 25. It is difficult to show the exact 
position in the cuts, but the idea is to have the shavings come 
away in a spiral, may be as fine as a hair, but in perfect coils. 

To turn the pivot, hold the graver nearly in line with the 
axis of the lathe, as shown at B, Fig. 25, and catching a chip 
at the extreme end with the back edge of the graver, push 
forward and at the same time rolling the graver towards you, 
which will give the pivot the conical form. Very small pivots 
can be turned in this way with perfect safety, and very 
smoothly. Of course, this method of turning will not give 
sharp corners; such places as the seat of the roller, balance, 
etc., must be carefully done with the point of the graver. 

The pivot and seat of the roller should be left slightly 
larger than required, to allow for the grinding and polishing, 
the amount of which will depend upon how smoothly the 
turning is done. The 

x a a 



F 

Fig. 26. 



grinding is done withx 

a slip of bell-metal or \ 

soft iron or steel of the 
shape shown at E, Fig. 
26. F is a bell-metal polisher, and G, is for the same pur- 
pose, but made of box-wood. E should be used with oil- 
stone powder and oil, and F and G with crocus and diaman- 
tine for polishing. 

When the staff is finished from the lower pivot to the seat 
of the balance, the upper part should be roughed out nearly 
to size, then cut off, reversed in the lathe and the top part 
finished. It is better to do this in a wax chuck even if you 
use a split chuck, for the lower part of the staff is tapered and 
it is ten chances to one that you could select a split chuck that 
would hold it true and firm. In using a wax chuck the im- 
portant point is to get a perfect center. It should be turned 
out with the graver at an angle of about 6o°, care being taken 
not to leave a little "tit" in the center. Before setting the 
staff in the wax it is necessary to get its full length as follows : 
Screw the balance cock in place with both cap jewels 




51 BANKING PINS. 

removed, and if the cock has been bent up or down, or punched 
to raise or lower it, see that it is straightened and put right; 
then with a degree gauge or calipers take the distance be- 
tween the outer surfaces of the hole jewels, and shorten the 
staff with a file to that length. 

A very handy tool can be 
made by adding a stop-screw 
to the common double cali- 
pers as shown in Fig. 27. 
The improvement is that 
Fig. 27. they can be opened to re- 

move from the work and closed again exactly the same. 

When fixing the staff in the chuck, care should be taken 
not to burn the wax. Use a small lamp and heat the chuck 
until the wax will just become fluid. The staff should be set 
in the wax about to the seat of the balance, the finished pivot 
resting in the center of the chuck, and the outer end trued up 
by the finger and the point of a peg while the wax is still 
soft. 

Fig. 28 shows it with the staff finished, but, of course, it is 

not, when put in the* wax. The dotted / — — >", 

lines show about the right quantity and \ . *^> f 
shape of the wax, which must be true and fig. 2S. 

round, or in cooling it will draw the work 
out of center. If necessary, when cool, the wax can be turned 
true with the graver, again heated and centered. The turn- 
ing and finishing is to be done as previously described. The 
seat for the balance should be slightly undercut and fitted to 
drive on tightly without riveting. Take the size of the top 
pivot from its jewel the same as the lower. The ends of the 
pivots should be finished as flat as possible, and the corners 
slightly rounded. When done, remove from the wax and 
boil in alcohol to clean, and it is ready to receive the balance, 
wrhich should first be poised as described on page 33. 

BANKING PINS. The two pins that limit the motion 
of the lever in the lever escapement are known as banking 
pins. The pins used for limiting the motion of the balance 



BARREL. 



52 



in verge and horizontal escapements are also known as bank- 
ing pins. The two pins in the balance arm which limit the 
motion of the balance spring in pocket chronometers are also 
known as banking pins. 

BARREL. The circular brass or steel box that encloses 
the mainspring of a watch or clock. 

Barrel Arbor. The barrel axis, around which the main- 
spring coils. 

Barrel Contract- 
or. Clackner's patent 
barrel contractor will 
be found very useful 
for restoring distort- 
ed mainspring barrels 
to shape, and consists 
of a die with a series 
of tapered holes, as 
shown in Fig. 29, 
and punches to corre- 
spond. The defective 
barrel is placed in a 

hole of the proper FlG - 29 " 

size and a few light taps from a hammer on the punch quickly 
brings the barrel to the desired form and of a size to fit the 
cover. This tool will also be found useful for contracting 
rings, etc. 

Barrel Hook. A hook in the barrel to which the main- 
spring is attached. The mainspring is sometimes attached by 
means of a hook on the spring which fits in a hole in the barrel. 

Barrel Ratchet. A wheel which is placed on the barrel 
arbor and kept from turning backward, when the mainspring 
is wound, by a click or dog. 

BEAT. The striking of the escape wheel upon the pallet 
or locking device. 




53 



BENCH. 




Beat Block. A device for obviating the necessity of 

marking the balance to see that it is in beat. 

Before taking off the hair 
spring lay it on the block, 
turn the balance so the roller 
pin hits on the side the arrow- 
points, then turn the table so 
that the line comes under 
the stud. In replacing the 

balance put the stud over the line and it will then beat 

the same as before. By using this tool you also avoid getting 

the balance out of true. 

Beat Pins. Small screws or pins to adjust the posi- 
tion of the crutch in relation to the pendulum. The pins at 
the end of the gravity arms that give impulse to the pendulum 
in a gravity escapement. 

BELL METAL. 

BENCH. An ex- 
cellent arrangement for 
a watchmaker's bench is 
shown in Fig. 32. This 
bench was designed by 
Mr. Laughlin and is 
complete in every detail. 
Benches can be pur- 
chased ready made from 
almost any tool and 
material house in the 
country but many pre- 
fer to make their own 
or to have them made 
in order to vary the 
details to suit their pecu- 
liarities. The bench 
shown in Fig. 31,1s one 
of the latest designs on 
the market, the points 




BENCH. 



54 



claimed for it being that it is raised sufficiently from the 
ground to allow sweeping under it, its small weight and its 
low price. The frame is made of iron and is similar to those 
used for sewing machines. The foot-wheel is fastened to the 
iron frame on the left, instead of being supported by uprights 
from the floor. It is neat in appearance, substantial, and quite 




Fig. 32. 

reasonable in price. From the sketch, (Fig. 32) any first- 
class cabinet maker should be able to make a good bench. 
This bench is made of black walnut, veneered with French 
walnut and birds' eye maple. The top is twenty-one inches 
wide by forty-one long, and is thirty-three inches high. The 
The drawers on the right hand side are ten inches wide. In 
the center are two drawers and the left hand side is entirely 



55 



BENZINE. 



boxed in. The lathe wheel can be varied to suit the ideas of 



the watchmaker, a 
its reception. For 




space of five inches being left for 
the various styles see Lathe Wheels. 
Well seasoned black wal- 
nut, cherry or red cedar 
are the best woods for 
a bench. The little pin 
attached to the right hand 
side of the bench is a peg- 
wood cutter, an enlarged view of which is shown in Fig. 33. 

BENZINE. A light oil of petroleum used for cleaning 
movements. For directions for use see Watch Cleaning. 

BEVEL GEAR. A gear in which the two wheels 
working together stand at right angles to each other. See 
Wheels. 

BEZEL. The grooved metal ring of a watch or clock 
that holds the crystal or glass in position. 

BEZEL CHUCK. See Chuck. 

BINDING WIRE. Fine malleable iron wire, used for 
binding articles while soldering, etc. 

BITE. To adhere to; To hold fast; As a set screw bites 
a shaft. The eating of metal by means of acid. 

BLOW-PIPE. A tapering metal tube, used to direct 
the flame from a lamp or gas jet upon an article for soldering, 
annealing and similiar purposes. See also Alcohol Lamp. 

BLUESTONE. A soft blue stone, sometimes used for 
reducing brass and gold before polishing. It must not be 
confounded with blue vitriol, sometimes called blue stone. 

BLUING. The changing of the color of steel by heat. 

BLUING PAN. A pan used for bluing screws and 
other small articles. It is sometimes very desirable to match 
the color of screw heads in a watch. By making the follow- 
ing described simple little tool you can very readily color your 



BLUING PAN. 



56 



screws straw, purple or blue as the case may require, to match 
the other screws in the watch. Select a very large main- 
spring barrel, drill a hole in the side of the barrel the size of 
an ordinary pendulum rod for an American clock, cut a 
thread in this hole and also on the piece of wire and screw it 
firmly into the mainspring barrel, cutting off about four or 
five inches long, to which attach a neat piece of wood to serve 




Fig. 34. 

as a handle. Now take out the head, and fill the barrel full 
of fine marble dust or brass or iron filings and replace the 
head in the barrel, after which drill any number and size of 
holes in the barrel you wish, to accommodate all sizes of 
watch screws, and the tool is ready for use. Bluing pans 
similar to the one shown in Fig. 34, can be purchased from 
material dealers and are similar to the one described. After 
fitting the screw to the proper place in the watch, harden and 




Fig. 35. 



temper in the usual manner. Polish out all scratches or other 
marks and selecting a hole in the tool to fit the screw loosely, 
press it down level with the face of the barrel and hold the tool 
over a small alcohol lamp flame until the color desired appears. 
Heat up slowly and the effect will be much better than if it is 
done rapidly. First blue the screws without any special 
regard as to uniformity of color. Should they prove to be 
imperfect, take a piece of clean pith and whiten the surface 
with rouge, without letting it be too dry. Pieces when thus 
prepared, if cleaned and blued with care will assume a very 
uniform tint. 



57 BOUCHON. 

Soft screws are sometimes very difficult to blue evenly, but 
this difficulty may be overcome by finishing them with a 
slightly soapy burnisher. Bluing shovels, like that shown in 
Fig. 35, can be purchased from material dealers. Another 
form is like that shown in Fig. 36, which is also known under 
the name of pickle-pan or boiling out pan. It is very useful 
for boiling out jewelry after soldering. For the latter pur- 
pose use sulphuric acid one part, and water fifteen to twenty 
parts. Pieces that are not flat will rarely assume an even 




Fig. 36. 

color when placed in a flat pan. To overcome this difficulty, 
sprinkle the bottom of the pan with fine brass filings or 
marble dust and press the article into it. The bluing pan or 
shovel should be thoroughly warmed before the articles are 
placed in it in order that any moisture present may be dis- 
persed. The pan will also be found useful for tempering 
small steel articles by boiling them in oil. 

BOILING-OUT PAN. See Fig. 36. 

BOUCHON. A hard brass tubing sometimes inserted in 
watch and clock plates to form pivot holes, and known in 
America as bushing wire. See Bushing. 

BOW. A device now obsolete which consisted of a strip 
of whalebone to both ends of which a cord or gut was 
attached and which was used to rotate a drill or mandril be- 
fore the introduction of watchmakers lathes. 

The ring of a watch case by which it is attached to the 
chain. See also Pendant Bow. 

Bow Tightener. See Pendant Bow Tightener. 

BRASS. See Alloys. 

BREGUET SPRING. See Hair Spring. 



BRIDGE. 



58 



BRIDGE. The standard secured to the plate, by means 
of screws, and in which a pivot works. 

BROACH. A tapering piece of steel used for enlarging 
holes, made with from two to eight cutting edges. Some 
broaches are made without cutting edges and are called 
polishing broaches. They are used for burnishing pivot 
holes. 



BRONZING. 

Staining, 

BUFF. 



See Electro - Plating, Bronzing and 




A device for polishing or reducing metals. 

Emery buffs are round 

or square sticks on which 

emery paper or cloth is 

glued. They are used 

Fig. 37. to reduce the surfaces of 

metal. Fig. 37 illustrates a ring buff used for polishing the 

inside of rings, preferably used on a polishing lathe. 

BULLSEYE. A thick watch resembling a bulls eye in 
shape. A term 
usually applied 
to old fashioned 
English verge 
watches. 

BURNISHER. 

A polished steel 
or agate tool used 
for glossing the 
surface of metals. FlG - 3 s - 

"Fig* 39 * s a jewel burnisher. The article to be burnished 
must be first freed from all scratches, for scratches would 
only be brought out more prominently by the use of the 
burnisher. The burnisher must be kept highly polished 
or you cannot expect to do good work with it. Saunier gives 
the following method of re-facing a burnisher: Prepare a dry 
smooth piece of wood, rather thick, and of a width equal to 




59 BUSH. 

the length of the burnisher. On this board carefully glue a 
piece of emery paper of a fineness corresponding to the 
degree of cut required, stretching it as even as possible, and 



Fig. 39. 

turning the edges down towards the under side. Then lay 
the board on a firm smooth surface, resting a weight npon it, 
and allow it to dry. In using this lap, it is fixed or allowed 
to rest against the side of the bench; holding the burnisher 
with two hands at its extremities, the workman places himself 
at one end of the board, and draws the burnisher along it 
towards* him, maintaining the surface quite flat and applying 
considerable pressure. On reaching the nearer end, raise it, 
and after again placing it on the furthest end, draw towards 
the body, and so on. By proceeeing in this manner all risk 
of rounding the angle will be avoided. 

BUSH. A perforated piece of metal let into a plate to 
receive the wear of pivots. See Bouchon. 

Bushing" Pivot Holes. The bush may be either a turned 
or tapped one. A bush is selected as small as the pivot will 
admit. Open the hole in the plate or cock and finish with a 
a rat-tail file. Slightly taper the end of the bush with a fine 
file until it will fit the hole. With a knife score the bush just 
above the edge of the plate and press it firmly into the hole. 
Break off the bush at the point scored and drive it firmly into 
place by means of the bushing punch shown at Fig. 40 and 
you will find your bush is rivited firmly into the plate. Ob- 
serve the endshake your pinion requires and make due allow- 
ance when finishing off your bushing. In bushing a plate, 
particularly where the bushing must be large, some watch- 
makers prefer to use a solid wire and drill the hole after 
fitting. If this method is followed be careful to see that you 
accurately center the work before drilling, and drill first with 
a shall drill, subsequently passing through a larger one, or 
open up the hole by means of a small broach. It is always 



BUSHING PUNCH. (jQ 

well to use bushing wire with a hole smaller than is ulti- 
mately required, and enlarging afterwards while the work is 
centered in the lathe. A tapped bushing is very firm, but 
unless the threads are well made is apt to be out of center. 
The closing hole punch shown at Fig. 40 often obviates the 
use of a bushing if skillfully used. 

BUSHING OR CLOSING HOLE PUNCH. This 
tool is very simple in construction and will be found very 
useful in repairing both watches and clocks. Fig. 40, 




Fig. 40. 

Goeggels Bushing and Closing Hole Punch, consists of two 
counter-sunk steel punches, with a post in the lower punch. 
In using, fasten the lower punch in vise and place the work 
over it. They are made in various sizes for watches and 
clocks and are quite inexpensive. 

BUSHING WIRE. Hard brass tubing for bushing the 
pivot holes of watches and clocks. This wire is kept by most 
material houses in the various sizes applicable to watch and 
clock work, and is put up in assorted sizes. See Bouchon 
and Bush. 

BUTTING. The touching of the points of the teeth of 
two wheels acting with one another. It is caused by the 
wheels being planted incorrectly, or by pinions or wheels of 
improper size. See Defthing Tool and Wheels and Pinions. 

CALIPERS. Compasses having two curved legs or 
fingers pivoted together and used either to measure the inside 
or outside diameter of bodies. Calipers are divided into two 
classes, known as inside and outside calipers. They are used 
by watchmakers for determining the diameter of staffs and 
pinions, for testing the truth of wheels, etc. Calipers are 
sometimes used in poising balances, the balance staff being 
centered between the points of the calipers. For this purpose 
a hole is drilled in the calipers and jewels are inserted. 




61 CAM. 

Thompson's jeweled calipers, shown in Fig. 41, have garnet 
jewels inserted in the points of the arms at 
one end, and hardened steel bearings in the 
other. The Euclid Double Calipers are very 
useful tools, as they give on the lower limbs 
an inside measurement corresponding to the 
outside measurement of the upper limbs. 
See Gauge. 

CAM. A movable piece of irregular 
contour, so shaped as to give a variable 
motion to another piece pressing against 
it by sliding or rolling contact. 

fig. 41. CANNON PINION. The pinion to 

which the minute hand is attached; so called on account of 
the pipe attachment resembling a cannon. 

CAP. The part of the case that covers the movement. 
A thin metal cover used in some English, Swiss and German 
watches to cover the movement and attached by studs and a 
sliding bar or spring. 

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION AND REMPUL- 
SION. The cause which determines the ascent or descent 
of certain fluids when in contact with certain solid substances. 
See Oil Sinks. 

CAPPED JEWEL. A jewel having an end stone. 

CARDINAL POINTS. The four intersections of the 
horizon with the meridian and the prime vertical circle, or 
North and South, East and West. Webster. 

CARRIER. A piece fastened to work in a lathe and 
connecting it with the face plate. A dog. 

CASE-HARDENING. A process of carbonizing the 
surface of wrought iron, thus converting it into steel. See 
Steel. 



CASE SPRINGS. 



62 



CASE SPRINGS. The springs in a watch case that 
cause it to fly open and that keep it in position when closed. 

Adjustable Case Springs. The Harstrom Adjustable 
Case Spring shown in Fig. 42 is easily fitted and is said 
to be a very excellent spring. The holder should be fitted 

securely in a vise and with a 
three cornered file cut down 
near the rear end on the back 
of the spring enough to rest a 
tap of a hammer you can move 
it backwards. To move it forward, rest your punch against 
the end of the spring. Thus you can easily make it cor- 
respond with the screw hole in the case. Then, near to where 
it protrudes from the holder, bend the spring upward enough 
to make the front end level with the upper edge of holder, 
or move, if greater strength is required. 




Fig. 42. 

punch against; then with a 



CASE 



SPRING VISE. The Boss case spring tool, 
shown in Fig. 43, is a very handy 
little tool. By turning the thumb 
screw you can bind the spring in the 
desired position and hold it there 
until the screw is inserted in its 
proper place. It will be found much 




Fig. 43. 
handier than the ordinary 
plyer-shaped tools designed 
for the same purpose. Another 



form 



Fig. 44. 

of case 



spring vise 



is Hall's, which is shown in Fig. 44. 



A stake made with 



lar 



head, 



CASE STAKE 

generally of steely 
and used for tak- 
ing out dents from 
battered watch 
cases. The stake 
shown in Fig. 45 
is of the reversible pattern, and whileusing is held in the vise. 




63 CELEBRITIES. 

CELEBRATED WATCHMAKERS. 

Abbey. To him or his assistant, Graham, is attributed the 
invention of the cylinder escapement. 

Arnold, John. Born in Cornwall, England, in 1744 
and died at Eltham, Eng., in 1799. He was the inven- 
tor of the helical form of balance spring and a chronometer 
escapement. The English Government awarded him £1,320 
for the superiority of his chronometers in 1790, and his son, 
who followed up the successes of his father, was awarded 
£ 1, 680 in 1805. 

Berthoud, Ferdinand. Born in 1727 and died in 
1807. An eminent Swiss watchmaker and author of many 
celebrated books on horology. He went to Paris at the age 
of 19 and remained there until his death. 

Berthoud, Louis. A French chronometer maker and 
nephew of Ferdinand Berthoud. He died in 1S13. 

Breguet, Abraham Louis. Born in Switzerland in 
1747 and died in Paris in 1823. An eminent watch- 
maker of French parentage and the inventor of the form of 
hairspring of that name. He was endowed with great in- 
genuity and a taste for complicated and remarkable mechan- 
isms. 

Callet, F. A thorough mechanic and skilled calcula- 
tor. He was born at Versailles, France, in 1744, and died 
in 1798. 

Dent, E. J. Born in 1790 and died in 1853. Builder 
of the great Westminster clock, London. 

De Vick, Henry. A celebrated German watchmaker of 
the fourteenth century and the builder of the famous clock 
belonging to Charles V. of France. Also claimed by some 
writers to be the inventor of the Verge escapement. 

Fetil, Pierre. A noted French watchmaker, born at 
Nantes in 1753, and died at Orleans May 18, 1S14. 



CELEBRITIES. 64 

Graham, George. Born in Cumberland, England, in 
1673 and died in 1751. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
He was the inventor of the mecurial pendulum, the dead beat 
escapement for clocks, and is credited with being the inventor 
of the cylinder escapement. 

Grossmann, Moritz. A celebrated horologist, author 
and linguist. Though born and raised in Saxony, he was 
very conversant with the French, Italian and English lan- 
guages, and contributed to many technical journals through- 
out the world. He was a member of the British Horological 
Institute, the Galileo Galilei, Milan, Italy, and the Polytechnic 
Society of Leipzig. It was while in the hall of the latter 
society, and just after delivering a lecture on horology, that 
he was stricken with apoplexy, which resulted in. his death 
Tan. 23, 1S85. He received his training as a watchmaker 
under the best masters of Saxony, Switzerland, France and 
England. He located in Glashutte, Saxony, in 1854, and 
began the manufacture of fine watches, tools and metric 
gauges, and later on large sized models of the various escape- 
ments. His first essay., " The Detached Lever Escapement," 
was written in 1864 and was awarded first prize by the 
British Horological Institute. In 1869 he took the first prize 
offered by the Chambre de Commerce, Geneva, on the subject 
of " The Construction of a Simple and Mechanically Perfect 
Watch." In 1878 he published a translation of Claudius 
Saunier's " Modern Horology." 

Harrison, John. Born in 1693 anc * died in 1776. He is 
credited with being the inventor of the going fusee and the 
gridiron pendulum. He was celebrated for his chronometers. 

Hooke, Robert. Born in 1635 and died in 1703. He 
was the inventor of the anchor escapement for clocks and the 
balance spring for watches. 

Houriet, F. A noted Swiss watchmaker of the eighteenth 
century. He worked for nine years in Paris with such men 
as F. Berthoud, Romilly and Le Roy. He afterwards re- 
turned to Neuchatel, and much of the rapid progress made by 
the watchmakers of that canton was credited to his efforts. 



65 CELEBRITIES. 

Huyghens, Christian. Born in 1629 and died in 1695. 
He is credited with being the first person to apply the pen- 
dulum to clocks. 

Janvier, Antide. He was celebrated for his skill in rep- 
resenting planetary movements by the aid of mechanism. 
He was a profound mathematician. He was born at Saint- 
Claude-du-Jura in 1751 and died in 1835. 

Jodin, Jean. A clever French watchmaker of the 
eighteenth century. Author of a work on horology. He 
was the first to point out that success in the timing of hori- 
zontal watches depends on the correct proportioning of all 
their parts. 

Jurgensen, Urban. Born in 1776 and died in 1830. He 
was a celebrated Danish watchmaker and the author of many 
valuable books on horology. 

Kessels, M. A celebrated German clockmaker who 
worked for a long time with Breguet. He was the maker of 
a number of excellent astronomical clocks for Swiss, German 
and Russian observatories. He died in 1849. 

Lepaute, J. A. One of the most celebrated of French 
horologists. He did much to improve his art, especially in 
regard to turret clocks. He was the author of a volume on 
horology, which in its time was a standard authority. He 
was born at Montmedi in 1709 and died in 1789. 

Le Roy, Julien. A celebrated French horologist. He 
was the inventor of the horizontal mechanism for turret 
clocks. He introduced improvements in nearly all the 
branches of horology of his day. He died in 1759. 

Le Roy, Pierre. A son of Julien Le Roy and unques- 
tionably the greatest of all French horologists. He was born 
in 17 1 7 and died in 1785. He was the inventor of the Duplex 
escapement. 

Moinet, Louis. . A clever watchmaker and writer of 
France. He was born at Bourges in 1768 and died in 1853. 



CELEBRITIES. G6 

Motel, H. A French chronometer maker, pupil and suc- 
cessor of Louis Berthoud. His chronometers were remark- 
able for their close rates and for their beautiful construction. 
He died in 1859. 

Mudge, Thomas. Born in 17 15 and died in 1794. He 
was the inventor of the lever escapement and was celebrated 
for his chronometers. 

Perron, M. A celebrated French watchmaker and author. 
Born at Besancon in 1779* 

Quare, Daniel. Born in 1632 and died in 1724. He was 
the first to apply the concentric minute hand to watches and 
clocks and was the inventor of the repeating watch. 

Reid, Thomas. Born in 1750 and died in 1834. He 
was a celebrated Scotch horologist and the author of a treatise 
on watch and clock making. 

Sully, Henry. Born in 1680 and died in 1728. A cele- 
brated watchmaker and the author of a work on horology. 
He was an Englishman by birth, though he resided most of 
the time in France, where he died. 

Robin, Robert. A celebrated French watch and clock 
maker. He built many large turret clocks for the public 
buildings of France. Born in 1742 and died in 1799. 

Romilly, M. A clever Swiss horologist. He was held 
in high esteem in Paris, where he passed the greater portion 
of his life. He was born at Geneva in 1714 and died in 1796. 

Roze, A. C. An eminent French watchmaker. Born in 
1812 and died in 1862. 

Tavan, Antoine. A celebrated French watchmaker who 
resided the better part of his life in Geneva. Born at Aost, 
France, in 1749 and died at Geneva in 1836. 

Tompion, Thomas. Born in 1638 and died in 1713. 
He was buried in Westminster Abbey. 



67 CEMENT. 

CEMENTS. Cement for use in the lathe can be pur- 
chased from material dealers generally at so small a cost that 
it will scarcely pay the watchmaker to bother in preparing it, 
but circumstances often arise where a cement is desirable for 
other purposes, such as attaching metal letters to show win- 
dows, etc., and the following receipts will be found very 
reliable. 

Acid-Proof Cement. A cement that resists acid is made 
by melting one part India rubber with two parts linseed oil; 
add sufficient white bolus for consistency. Neither muriatic 
nor nitric acid attack it; it softens a little in heat, and its sur- 
face does not dry easily; which is produced by adding one- 
fifth part litharge. 

Alabaster Cement. Melt alum and dip the fractured 
faces into it; then put them together as quickly as possible. 
Remove the exuding mass with a knife. 

Alabaster Cement. I. Finely powdered plaster of Paris 
made into a paste with water. 2. Melt rosin, or equal parts 
of yellow rosin and beeswax, then stir in half as much finely 
powdered plaster of Paris. The first is used to join and to 
fit together pieces of alabaster or marble, or to mend broken 
plaster figures. The second is to join alabaster, marble, and 
other similar substances that will bear heating. 

Amber Cement. For cementing amber and meerschaum 
make a thick cream of finely powdered quicklime and white 
°f e g"g> a Pply with a camels' hair brush, dry slowly and 
scrape off surplus after thoroughly dry. 

Acid Proof Cement. Form a paste of powdered glass 
and a concentrated solution of silicate of soda. 

Cement for Thin Metal Sheets. Cut isinglass into 
small pieces and dissolve in a little water at a moderate heat; 
add a small quantity of nitric acid, the quantity being deter- 
mined by experiment; with too much acid the cement dries 
too slowly, while with too little it does not adhere well. 



CEMENT. 68 

Cement for Glass and Brass. Melt together i part of 
wax and 5 parts of resin, and after melting stir in 1 part of 
burned ochre and j£ part plaster of Paris. This is a good 
cement for attaching letters to windows. Apply warm to 
heated surfaces where possible. 

Cement for Glass and Metals. The following cement 
is used extensively for fastening brass and enamel letters to 
show windows: Mix together boiled linseed oil 5 parts, copal 
varnish 15 parts, glue 5 parts, and oil of turpentine 5 parts; 
add to this solution 10 parts of slaked lime and thoroughly in- 
corporate. 

Cement for Paper and Metals. Dissolve dextrin in 
water, adding 20 parts of glycerine and 10 parts of glucose. 
Coat the paper with this mixture, and, after rubbing the 
metal with a piece of onion, attach the paper. 

Cement for Knife and Fork Handles. Melt two parts 
of pitch and stir in one part of sand or brick dust; fill the 
cavity in the handle with the mixture, and push in the pre- 
viously heated tang. 

Engravers' Cement. Resin, one part; brick dust, one 
part; mix with heat. 

Fireproof Cement. A very tenacious and fireproof 
cement for metals is said to be made by mixing pulverized 
asbestos with waterglass, to be had in any drug store; it is 
said to be steam tight, and resist any temperature. 

Glass and Metal Cement. Brass letters, and other articles 
of alike nature, may be securely fastened on glass windows 
with the following: Litharge, two parts; white lead, one 
part; boiled linseed oil, 3 parts; gum copal, 1 part. Mix just 
before using; this forms a quickly drying and secure cement. 

Gold and Silver Colored Cement. For filling hollow 
gold and silver articles. Consists of sixty parts shellac, ten 
parts Venetian turpentine, and three parts gold bronze or 



69 CEMENT BRASSES 

silver bronze, as the case may be. The shellac is melted first, 
the turpentine is then added, and finally, with constant stirring 
the gold or silver bronze. 

Jewelers' Cement. Put in a bottle two ounces of isinglass 
and one ounce of the best gum Arabic, cover them with proof 
spirits, cork loosely and place the bottle in a vessel of water, 
and boil it until a thorough solution is effected; then strain 
for use. 

Metal Cement. Take plaster of Paris, and mix it to 
proper thickness by using water containing about one-fourth 
of gum Arabic. This cement is excellent for metal exposed to 
contact with alcohol, and for cementing metal to glass. 

Strong Cement. Mix some finely-powdered rice with 
cold water, so as to form a soft paste. Add boiling water, 
and finally boil the mixture in a pan for one or two minutes. 
A strong cement is thus obtained, of a white color, which can 
be used for many purposes. 

Transparent Cement. A good transparent cement for 
fastening watch glasses, etc., in bezels or settings, is made by 
by dissolving seven parts of pure gum Arabic and three parts 
crystalized sugar in distilled water; the bottle containing the 
mixture should be placed in a utensil of hot water until the 
mixture assumes the consistency of syrup, and then left well 
corked for use. 

Watchmakers' Cement or Wax. Eight ounces" of 
gum shellac heated and thoroughly incorporated with one- 
half ounce of ultramarine makes the strongest and best wax 
for use on cement brasses and chucks. 

CEMENT BRASSES. Attachments to a lathe to which 
work is fixed by means of cement. These brasses are made 
in various shapes and sizes by tool manufacturers, or the inge- 
nious watchmaker can make them for himself during his 
leisure hours. The watchmaker should have a supply of 
these brasses, varying in diameter from one inch to the small- 
est size necessary. Should you have a watch that has a 



CENTERS. 



70 




Fig. 46. 



broken cock or foot jewel, and among your supply you are 
unable to find one that fits both the pivot and the recess in the 
cock or potence, you will find these brasses very useful. If 
you find a jewel that fits the pivot nicely, and 
the brass setting is too large, select a cement 
brass that is just a trifle smallerthan the recess 
in the potance, cement the jewel to the end of 
the brass, with the flat side of jewel to the 
brass, so that if the brass setting of the jewel is too thick it 
can be turned to exact thickness of the old setting at the same 
time that the diameter is turned. Bring to an exact center by 
the hole in the jewel, by means of a pegwood, and as soon 
as the cement is hard turn down 
with a sharp graver. With a full 
set of these brasses a watchmaker 
can utilize odds and ends, without 
waiting to send for new jewels. 
The above is only one of many 
uses to which these brasses may be brought. 




Fig. 47. 



CENTERS. Pins used in conjunction with a lathe 

for holding work while revolving. They are usually made 
of steel. They are of two forms, known as male and female 
centers. 

Female Centers. These very useful adjuncts to a lathe 
are easily made by any watchmaker. He should have at least 
six pairs, the largest being one-fourth of an inch in diameter, 
which will accomodate as large a piece as you will wish to 
handle on your watch lathe, viz.: winding arbors for clocks. 

These female centers are made 
from steel tapers, the same as cen- 
ters are made, but instead of turn- 
ing the end to a sharp point they 
are countersunk. First place the 
FlG - 48 - taper in a chuck and turn off the 

outside and end true; drill a small hole in the center of the 
taper, while the lathe is running, and deep enough- so the 
countersink will not reach the bottom of the hole, or 




71 CENTERING. 

one-eighth of an inch deeper than the countersink. Harden 
the end only and after tempering polish off the bluing. After 
you have made all the sizes you require, test all of them 
in your lathe to make sure they did not get out of true in 
tempering. 

These female centers are very useful for holding or sus- 
pending any article in the lathe that is too large to be held in 
the split chucks. Pivots of clocks can be turned and polished 
very quickly and accurately in these centers. 

Almost any kind of large work can be done on a medium 
sized watchmakers' lathe by fitting a face plate to the lathe, 
say one and three-fourths inches in diameter, with four slots, 
and fitted to a chuck with a taper hole to receive both male 
and female centers. The taper hole being standard, the 
centers are interchangeable, and with two styles of dogs 
almost any kind of large clock work can readily be handled. 

These centers prove very useful for many odd jobs. As an 
example: It is a very common occurrence to hear an Ameri- 
can clock beat irregularly, caused by the 'scape being out of 
round. Select a pair of female centers that will admit the 
ends of the pivots of the 'scape wheel snugly; place one center 
in the taper chuck and the other in the tail stock spindle, and 
suspend the 'scape pinion in these centers; fasten on a dog, run 
the lathe at a high speed and hold a fine, sharp file so it will 
touch the teeth of the 'scape wheel slightly, and in a moment 
the wheel will be perfectly round, after which sharpen up the 
teeth that are too thick. L. 

Male Centers. Conically pointed pins; the opposite of 
female centers. 

CENTERING ATTACHMENT. The Potter patent 
self-centering lathe attachment shown in Fig. 49 will be found 
useful in rapidly bringing work to an accurate center, when 
pivoting, staffing, etc. 

The attachment, which may be fitted to any make of Ameri- 
can lathe, consists primarily of the side bed pieces R and Z>, 
the upright plate A, and the reversible anti-friction sliding 
jaws 000. The upright plate A is attached to the slide D in 



CENTERING. 



72 




such a way that it may be readily raised or lowered or adjusted 
in any other direction at pleasure; and may be set with either 

side facing the lathe head. 
Of the reversible sliding 
jaws o o o, which are made 
of Phospor Bronze Anti- 
Friction Metal, not requiring 
the use of oil, four sets of 
three in a set, are furnished 
with each attachment. 
These are of different form, 
as shown at A" V O U, to 
adapt them to the various 
kinds of watch work, and are 
operated in radical grooves 
in the upright plate A, by 
means of the rotating lever 
Z, which moves the three 
jaws in and out, to and from the center, or opens and closes 
them in perfect unison. One set of jaws may be withdrawn 
and another set substituted therefor in a few moments. With 
each change of the jaws, however, the plate A requires re- 
adjustment; but this, too, may be done in a few moments, as 
follows: Having previously provided yourself with a bit of 
straight wire or small steel rod, turned to run perfectly true 
in your lathe, and having fastened this in the chuch in your 
lathe, loosen the nuts C C so as to give freedom of move- 
ment to the plated; then bring the attachment to proper 
position on the lathe bed and fasten it there; after which 
move the sliding jaws inward until they bind lightly on the bit 
of straight wire held in your chuck, and in this position again 
tighten the nuts C C. Once adjusted to accurate center in 
this way no further adjustment, whatever the size of work 
to be operated upon, is required, until another change of jaws. 
In use, the end of the work to be operated upon, is placed 
in an accurate split chuck in the lathe and the chuck tightened 
on it just sufficiently to hold it in place and to rotate it, the 
other end being supported in the centered bearing formed by 



T6 



CENTERING. 



the jaws o o o. In this position the jaws o o o, or such others 
as for the time may be in use, may be opened and closed as 
often as desired, and each time will instantly bring the work 
again to accurate center. 

CENTERING INDICATOR. In centering quickly 
on the universal head, this tool is indispensible. It will also 
be found valuable for other work. It is not kept by dealers, 
and will have to be made by the watchmaker. The body of 
the indicator is made of sheet brass, and should be about five 
inches long by two inches in width at the larger end. The 

shank C, is made to fit 
in rest holder, and is 
either riveted or sol- 
dered to the body ; R 
is steel or copper wire 
sharpened to a fine 
point, and balances on 
a pivot at i ; B is a 
clock hand pivoted to 
fig. 5 o. the body at 1 ; 2 and 2 

are pivot joints only and do not go through the body; fig 3 
will perhaps give a better idea of the end R. To center with 
this tool, unscrew your rest and remove it, then place the 
shaft C, fig 1, in rest holder and adjust it till the needle point 
R touches the top of hole as shown in fig. 2. The index 
hand will then note the variations as the head revolves. If 
too low, the hand will point above center and if high vice versa. 




CENTER PUNCH. 



A punch having a sharp point, for 
marking 
the cente r 
of work 



Fig. si. 



swung in a 

lathe, so that it may readily be removed and replaced without 
the trouble of finding the center each time. 

CENTER OF GRAVITY. That point of a body 
about which all its parts are balanced, or which, being 



CENTER OF GYRATION. 74 

supported, the whole body will remain at rest, though acted 
upon by gravity. Webster. 

CENTER OF GYRATION. That point in a body 
rotating around an axis, at which, if a given force were ap- 
plied, it would produce the same angular velocity in a given 
time as it would if the whole mass of the body were collected 
at that point. Webster. Britten says that a circle drawn at 
seven-tenths of its radius on a circular rotating plate of uniform 
thickness would represent its center of gyration. The mo- 
ment of inertia, or the controlling power of balances varies 
as their mass, and as the square of the distance of their center 
of gyration from their center of motion. Although not 
strictly accurate, it is practically quite near enough in the 
comparison of balances to take their weight, and the square 
of their diameter. 

CENTER OF MOTION. That point which remains 
at re^t while all the other parts of a body revolve around it. 

CENTER OF OSCILLATION. That point at 
which, if the whole matter of a suspended body were col- 
lected, the time of oscillation would be the same. In a long 
cone suspended from its apex the center of oscillation is at 
four-fifths of its length from the apex, and in a bar suspended 
from one end that point is at two-thirds of its length. A 
pendulum being irregular in form it is difficult to calculate 
its center of oscillation, but it always is situated below its 
center of gravity. The following explanation may aid the 
student in locating the center of oscillation: 

* All know that a simple theoretical pendulum is one where 
the whole weight is centered in one point, suspended from, 
and oscillating about, a fixed point, or center of suspension. 
A sphere of platinum, suspended by a fibre of silk, would 
probably be the nearest approximation to a perfectly simple 
pendulum. A compound pendulum is one where the weight 
is not centered in or about one point, but is extended for some 
distance up and down the rod. Suppose there are fixed upon 
the fibre, at equal distances, three platinum balls. From the 

* From the American Horological Journal. 



75 CENTER OF OSCILLATION. 

well-known fact that a short pendulum vibrates quicker than 
a long one, the upper or short pendulum will endeavor to 
make its vibrations in the short time due to its length as a 
pendulum. The middle ball will endeavor to make its oscilla- 
tions in the time its length of support demands, and the lower 
and longest will attempt the slow and regular vibrations of 
the long pendulum. Suppose that these three balls, repre- 
senting three pendulums of three different lengths, be drawn 
aside from the perpendicular 5 and suddenly released, 
the consequence will be that the upper one will have made 
its full excursion by the time the middle one has descended to 
the perpendicular, and before the lower one has arrived there; 
the momentum of the three balls bending the fibre of silk 
into such a curve as will accommodate the tendencies of the 
three balls. 

If the silk fibre be replaced by an inflexible rod, and the 
now rigid compound pendulum be drawn aside as before, the 
upper ball will endeavor to hasten forward the middle one to 
its own speed, and the middle and upper one will both com- 
bine to hasten the lower one. So also, the middle one will 
retard somewhat the rapidity of the upper one, and the slow- 
moving lower one will do its best to restrain the haste of both 
those above it, and the consequence of all these tendencies 
will be that the lower one will be somewhat accelerated, and 
the upper one proportionally retarded ; the whole assuming a 
vibration which is the mean (middle ball) of the two extremes, 
provided the three masses are equal, thus compelling the 
whole to oscillate as a pendulum whose length is that of the 
middle ball. But if the lower ball be the largest, its control 
over those parts above it will be in proportion to its mass and 
the time of its vibrations will nearly coincide with those made 
by its center of gravity. 

Suppose, again, the largest amount of matter to be in the 
upper ball. Then will its influence be more potent toward 
forcing the lower and longer pendulums to accommodate 
their rate to that of the upper one, and their vibrations will be 
thereby increased to a degree which will approximate the 
normal vibrations of that short pendulum. Thus you see the 



CENTER OF OSCILLATION. 76 

difficulty of exactly fixing upon the exact length of any com- 
pound pendulum by simple computation. Every particle of 
matter from the top of the rod to the lower extremity, which 
differs in its distance from the point of suspension, has its own 
time for making an oscillation about that point; and the 
greater the number of particles that have an equal distance 
from that point, the greater influence they possess in determin- 
ing the time of vibration; in this case, as in republics, the 
mass rules. To obviate these counteracting influences that 
are constantly at work in the oscillations of the compound 
pendulum, it becomes necessary to concentrate, as far as pos- 
sible, all the matter of the pendulum at such a distance from 
the point of suspension as will produce the number of vibra- 
tions desired, and this center of oscillation will always fall in 
a line produced through the center of gravity and the point 
of suspension, and will always be below the center of gravity. 

The center of oscillation and suspension are convertible 
points; that is, a pendulum inverted and suspended from the 
center of oscillation will vibrate in the same time. Huygens, 
the Dutch scientist, discovered this remarkable fact, and it 
affords a ready means of determining experimentally the 
length of a compound pendulum, which may be measured by 
means of a platinum or lead ball, suspended by a fibre of silk 
from the same point, and in front of the pendulum to be 
measured, and of such a length that the vibrations will per- 
fectly coincide in time. The distance from the point of sus- 
pension to the center of the ball (which is also the center of 
oscillation) is nearly the length of that compound pendulum. 

It should be remembered that the center of oscillation is 
the point to be affected in all compensations for temperature. 
The difficulty in producing a perfect compensation pendulum 
is to harmonize and bring into coincidence the antagonistic 
tendencies of the center of gravity, center of oscillation and 
moment of inertia, all of which are properties and peculiarities 
of compound pendulums, and must be taken into considera- 
tion by those who are experimenting upon them with the 
expectation of producing any arrangement in advance of those 
in use at present. 



77 CENTER WHEEL. 

CENTER SECONDS. See Sweep Seconds. 

CENTER WHEEL. The wheel whose staff carries 
the minute hand. 

CENTER STAFF. The arbor attached to the center 
wheel which carries the minute hand. 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. The tendency that rev- 
olving bodies have to fly from the center. Britten says that 
that when balances are made too thin in the rim, they alter in 
diameter from this cause, in the long and short vibrations. 

CHAIN HOOK. A small hook which is attached to 
each end of a fusee chain, to fasten the chain to the barrel and 
fusee. 

CHAMFER. To groove. To cut a channel in. To 
cut or grind in a sloping manner anything originally right- 
angled. To bevel. , 

CHAMFERING TOOL. A tool for cutting a bevel 
or chamfer. A tool for cutting a furrow or channel is also 
known as a chamfering tool. 

CHAMOIS. A soft leather used by watchmakers and 
jewelers, and so called because first prepared from the skin of 
a species of antelope known as chamois. 

Chamois, to Clean. Many workshops contain a dirty 
chamois leather, which is thrown aside and wasted for want 
of knowing how to cleanse it. Make a solution of weak soda 
and warm water, rub plenty of soft soap into the leather, and 
allow it to remain in soak for two hours, then rub it well until 
quite clean. Afterward rub it well in a weak solution com- 
posed of warm water, soda and yellow soap. It must not be 
rinsed in water only, for then it will be so hard, when dry, as 
to be unfit for use. It is the small quantity of soap left in the 
leather that allows it to separate and become soft. After 
rinsing wring it well in a rough towel, and dry quickly, then 
pull it about, and brush it well, and it will become softer and 
better than most new leathers. In using a rough leather to 



CHARIOT. 78 

touch up highly polished surfaces, it is frequently observed to 
scratch the work; this is caused by particles of dust, and even 
hard rouge, that are left in the leather, and if removed by a 
clean brush containing rouge,, it will then give the brightest 
and best finish, which all good workmen like to see on their 
work. 

CHARIOT. A brass bar screwed to the pillar plate of a 
cylinder watch to carry the lower pivot of the cylinder, and 
to afford a seat for the balance cock. Slight alterations in 
the intersection of the cylinder and the escape wheel are made 
by shifting the chariot. Brittei}. 

CHIMES. A set of bells musically tuned to one another 
and sometimes attached to tower clocks, especially in Europe, 
such clocks being known as quarter clocks, or chiming clocks. 

CHIMING BARREL. The cylinder in a chiming 
clock which raises the hammer in the chiming train by means 
of projections upon its surface. 

CHRONOGRAPH. A recording time piece. In mod- 
ern usage the term is applied to watches having a center 
seconds hand (driven from the fourth wheel), which generally 
beats fifths of a second. The hand is started, stopped or 
caused to fly back by manipulating a push on the side of the 
case. 

CHRONOMETER. A portable time piece of superior 
construction, with heavy compensation- 
balance, and usually beating half seconds; 
intended for keeping very accurate time 
\ for astronomers, watchmakers, etc. 

Marine Chronometer. A chrono- 
meter hung in gimbals for use at sea in 
determining longitude. 

FlG - S2 - Pocket Chronometer. A pocket 

watch with chronometer escapement. 

CHRONOMETER ESCAPEMENT. An escape- 
ment in which the escape wheel is locked on a stone carried 




79 CHRONOMETER. 

in a decent, and impulse is given by the teeth of the escape 
wheel to a pallet on the balance staff once in every alternate 
vibration. The French claim the honor of the invention of 
the detached detent, or chronometer escapement, for Pierre 
Le Roy, while the English claim it for John Arnold. The 
first chronometer escapements were made with the small 
spring, or gold spring, attached to the roller on the balance 
staff. F. Berthoud made the escapement after this fashion, 
but Arnold transferred it to the detent. The detent as made 
by Arnold worked on a pivoted arbor, having a spiral spring 
around it to bring it back into position after it was released by 
the pallet. Earnshaw improved upon Arnold's construction 
by doing away with the arbor and making the detent and 
spring in one piece, as shown in Fig. 53. He also improved 
upon the escape wheel made by Arnold, whose wheel was 
made so that the unlocking took place inside the wheel, the 
acting curves of the teeth being raised from the plane of the 
wheel. Earnshaw made the teeth flat, and also changed the 
direction of the pressure during locking. 

Saunier says of the chronometer escapement, that its mode 
of action is simple, but it does not admit of any error in the 
application of its principles, nor any inferior workmanship. It 
absolutely requires an isochronal balance spring and a com- 
pensation balance, and should never be employed in ordinary 
watches. Nevertheless, the chronometer escapement is 
adopted wherever the most reliable time is required, and among 
the best manufacturers in the world the good chronometer is 
considered as their finest production. 

Britten says of the 

ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

A tooth of the escape wheel is at rest on the locking pallet 
The office of the discharging pallet is to bend the detent so 
as to allow this tooth to escape. The discharging pallet does 
not press directly on the detent, but on the free end of the 
gold spring, which presses on the tip of the detent. 

The balance, fixed to the same staff as the rollers, travels in 
the direction of the arrow around the rollers, with sufficient 
energy to unlock the tooth of the wheel which is held by the 



CHRONOMETER. 80 

locking pallet. Directly the detent is released by the dis- 
charging pallet, it springs back to its original position, ready 
to receive the next tooth of the wheel. There is a set screw 
to regulate the amount of the locking on which the pipe of 
the detent butts. This prevents the locking pallet being 
drawn further into the wheel. It is omitted in the drawing, 
for clearness. It will be observed that the impulse roller is 
planted so as to intersect the path of the escape wheel teeth as 
much as possible, and by the time the unlocking is completed 
the impulse pallet will have passed far enough in front of the 
escape wheel tooth to afford it a safe hold. The escape 
wheel, impelled by the mainspring in the direction of the 
arrow, overtakes the impulse pallet and drives it on until the 
contact between them ceases by the divergence of their paths. 
The wheel is at once brought to rest by the locking pallet, 
and the balance continues its excursion, winding up the 
balance spring as it goes until its energy is exhausted. The 
balance is immediately started in its return vibration by the 
effort of the balance spring to return to its state of rest. You 
will notice that the nose of the detent does not reach to the 
end of the gold spring, so that the discharging pallet in this 
return vibration merely bends the gold spring without affect- 
ing the locking pallet at all. When the discharging pallet 
reaches the gold spring, the balance spring is at rest; but the 
balance does not stop, it continues to uncoil the balance spring 
until its momentum is exhausted, and then the effort of the 
balance spring to revert to its normal state induces another 
vibration ; the wheel is again unlocked and gives the impulse 
pallet another blow. 

Although the balance only gets impulse in one direction, 
the escape wheel makes a rotation in just the same time as 
with a lever escapement, because in the chronometer the whole 
space between two teeth passes every time the wheel is un- 
locked. 

By receiving impulse and having to unlock at every other 
vibration only, the balance is more highly detached in the 
chronometer than in most escapements, which is a distinct 
advantage. No oil is required to the pallets and another 



fl> 










1» 

3 



T3 O 

2- J 



W 



o> 



►o »o 



CD 

n ST 



3 „G c c 

g g .a- ^ ! 



S- ^ 



o 

•-** a> orq" 

3" as n" 

a rj ^ 

5a a> 







CHRONOMETER. 



82 



disturbing influence is thus got rid of. If properly propor- 
tioned and well made its performance will be quite satisfactory 
as long as it is not subjected to sudden external motion or jerks. 
For marine chronometers it thus leaves but little to be desired, 
and even for pocket watches it does well with a careful 
wearer; but with rough usage it is liable to set, and many 
watchmakers hesitated to recommend it on this account. It 
is much more costly than the lever, and would only be applied 
to very high-priced watches, and in these the buyer naturally 
resents any failure of action. Its use in pocket pieces is there- 
fore nearly confined to such as are used for scientific purposes, 




Fig. 54. Fig. 55. 

or by people who understand the nature of the escapement, 
and are prepared to exercise care in wearing the watch. There 
is another reason why watchmakers, as a rule, do not take 
kindly to the chronometer escapement for pocket work. After 
the escapement is taken apart, the watch does not so surely 
yield as good a performance as before. In fact it is more 
delicate than the lever. 

CONSTRUCTION AND PROPORTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

For the ordinary 3-inch two-day marine chronometer move- 
ments, three sizes of escape wheels are used — viz.: .54, .56, 
and .58 of an inch in diameter; for eight-day marine chrono- 
meters the sizes are — .48, .50, or .52 of an inch. The escape 



83 CHRONOMETER. 

wheel has fifteen teeth, and the diameter of the impulse roller 
is half that of the escape wheel. The roller is planted as 
close between two teeth of the escape wheel as possible, so 
that theoretically the roller intersects the path of the teeth 
for 24 of the circumference of the wheel. This gives 
theoretically a balance arc of 45 °.* Practically it is less; 
there must be clearance between the roller and wheel teeth, 
an allowance must also be made for the side shake of the 
.pivots. In Fig. 53, the impulse pallet is just opposite a 
tooth of the escape wheel when the discharging pallet is 
resting on the end of the gold spring. The balance moves 
through about 5 to accomplish the unlocking, and by 
the time that is done the impulse pallet will be 5° in 
advance of the tooth, and the tooth will drop through this 
space and more before it reaches the pallet, because after the 
wheel is unlocked it takes some time to get into motion at all, 
and at first its motion is slower than the motion of the pallet, 
which had not ceased to travel. The drop must be enough to 
allow the pallet to safely intersect the path of the tooth, 
and is arranged generally as shown, so that the pallet is 5 
in advance of the tooth when the unlocking is completed. 
But many authorities insist on even more drop, so as to give 
the impulse more nearly on the line of centres. It is argued 
that the drop is not all mischievous loss of power, as it is in 

*The balance arc is the amount that the edge of the impulse roller 
intersects the path of the wheel teeth, and is measured from the'centre 
of the balance staff. Figs. 54 and 55 show a method of determining the 
relative size of the escape wheel and impulse roller for a given balance 
arc, which is taken from a report in the Horological Journal of a most 
excellent lecture on the chronometer escapement by Mr. Nelson. Fig. 
54 (36 of balance arc) is an example of a usual proportion for pocket, 
and Fig. 55 (45 of balance arc) a usual proportion for marine chrono- 
meters. Through a b, the given centres of escape wheel and balance, 
draw the line c. From a set off by means of a protractor 12 (half 
the distance between two teeth of the escape wheel) on each side of the 
centre line, and draw d e. From b set off on each side of the centre 
line half the amount of the given balance arc and draw two other lines, 
as shown. The circles representing the tips of the escape wheel teeth 
and the impulse roller are drawn to cut the intersections of these four 
lines. 



CHRONOMETER. 84 

the lever escapement, for with a greater amount of drop the 
wheel attains a greater velocity when it does strike the pallet. 
However, most makers adhere to the 5 , although it may in 
some instances be advisable to vary it. If there is fear of 
over-banking, the arc of vibration may be reduced by giving 
more drop; and if the vibration is sluggish and the drop can 
be safely reduced, the vibration will be increased thereby. 

The body of the escape wheel is thinned down to about 
one-half for lightness. The fronts of the wheel teeth diverge 
about 20 from a radial line so that the tips, being more 
forward, draw the locking stone safely in. The locking face 
of the stone is also set at a sufficient angle to to ensure per- 
ceptible draw. The edge of the impulse roller acts as a guard 
to prevent the wheel teeth passing in the event of accidental 
unlocking at the wrong time. There is a crescent-shaped 
piece cut out of the roller to clear the teeth of the wheel. It 
should be very little behind the pallet, and less than the dis- 
tance between two teeth of the escape wheel in front of it to 
avoid the danger of running through or passing two teeth 
when such accidental unlocking occurs. It is important to 
see that there is enough cut out in front of the pallet to clear 
the wheel tooth at all times. When the balance is traveling 
very quickly — i. e., with an unusually large vibration — the 
pallet gets a long way in front of the tooth before the tooth 
starts, and then if the crescent is not cut far enough beyond 
the face of the pallet, the tooth would butt on the roller. 

The radius of the discharging pallet is a trifle less than one- 
half that of the impulse pallet. If made too small the locking 
stone cannot return quick enough to catch the tooth. 

The detent is made very light, and of about the proportion 
shown in the drawing. The spring of the detent is thinned 
down so that when the foot is fixed and it stands out hori- 
zontally, one pennyweight hung from the pipe deflects it 
about a quarter of an inch. If the spring is made too thin, it 
will cockle and give trouble. The detent may very easily be 
made too long from the point where it bends to the locking 
pallet, and would then be too sluggish and allow the wheel to 
trip by not returning quick enough after the unlocking to 



85 CHRONOMETER. 

receive the next tooth of the wheel. The distance from the 
shoulder of foot to pipe to be equal to the diameter of the 
wheel is recommended by Mr. T.Hewitt as a very good rule. 
The escape wheel is of hard hammered brass, the rollers of 
steel. The detent of steel, carefully tempered, with the point 
of the horn left softer to allow of bending. The pallets are 
all of sapphire or ruby, fastened in with shellac. A brass 
plug is fitted in to occupy the space in the pipe of detent not 
filled by the locking pallet. The gold spring is hammer- 
hardened. 

POCKET CHRONOMETER. 

The escape wheel for pocket chronometers varies from .28 
to about .35 in diameter. The impulse roller is made larger in 
proportion to the escape wheel than in the marine chrono- 
meter, so as to lessen the tendency of the escapement to set. 
If the chronometer escapement is brought to rest by external 
motion just as the unlocking is taking place it must set, for 
the balance spring is then quiescent. In the lever escapement 
the tooth of the escape wheel is in the middle of the impulse 
plane of the pallet when the balance spring is quiescent, and in 
this respect the lever has the advantage. If the velocity of the 
balance in a chronometer is much reduced when the unlocking 
is completed, then a large impulse roller is of great assistance 
to the wheel in overcoming the inertia of the balance. 

As the diameter of the roller is increased, the balance arc, 
and also the intersection of the path of the wheel teeth by the 
impulse pallet, is decreased. The velocity of the edge of the 
roller, too, more nearly approaches the velocity of the wheel 
tooth, so that less of the power is utilized. It is, therefore, 
not prudent to adopt a much less balance arc than 28 or 30 . 

The tendency of pocket chronometers to set is also lessened 
by adopting a quick train; 18,000 is the usual train, but they 
are occasionally made with 19,200 by having sixteen teeth in 
the escape wheel instead of fifteen. This seems to be an 
objectionable way of getting the quick train. The teeth of 
the escape wheel being closer together, a smaller roller must 
be used to get the same intersection, and as there is less time 
for the detent to return there is great danger of mislocking. 



CHRONOMETER. 86 

For the convenience of getting the seconds hand to jump 
half-seconds, a 14,400 train is sometimes adopted in pocket 
chronometers. In this case the escape wheel has twelve teeth, 
the numbers of the rest of the train remaining the same. 

The other parts of the pocket chronometer escapement are 
similar to those of the marine chronometer. 

TO EXAMINE THE ESCAPEMENT. 

See that the wheel is true and the teeth smooth and perfect, 
and that the rollers properly fit the staff. See that the end 
shakes and side shakes are correct. See that the " lights " 
between the wheel teeth and the edge of the roller are equal 
on both sides when the wheel is locked. If they are not, the 
foot of the detent must be knocked a trifle to or from the 
centre of the roller till the lights are equal. If the light is 
more than sufficient for clearance the roller must be warmed 
to soften the shellac, and the impulse pallet moved out a little. 
If the light is excessive there will be too much drop on to the 
locking after the wheel tooth leaves the impulse pallet, and 
with a large drop there is danger of tripping. 

To ensure safe locking the detent should be set on so that 
when the banking screw is removed, and the locking pallet is 
free of the wheel teeth, it will just spring in as far as the rim 
of the wheel. 

In pocket chronometer escapements it is especially neces- 
sary to see that the face of the locking stone is angled so as 
to give perceptible draw. Many pocket chronometers fail for 
want of it. 

The gold spring should point to the centre of the roller. 
Bring the balance around till the discharging pallet touches the 
gold spring preparatory to unlocking, and notice how far from 
that point the balance moves before the gold spring drops off 
the face of the pallet. Then reverse the motion of the bal- 
ance, and see if the same arc is traveled through from the 
time the back of the pallet touches the gold spring until it 
releases it. If not, the horn of the detent must be bent to 
make the action equal. 

Bring the discharging pallet on to the gold spring, and let 
it bend the detent so that the locking stone is as much outside 



87 CHRONOSCOPE. 

the wheel as it was within when the wheel was locked. The 
gold spring should then drop off the discharging pallet. 
Make it to length, sloping off the end from the side on which 
the pallet falls to unlock, and finish it with great care. The 
gold spring should be thinned near its fixed end as much as 
possible, and the detent spring thinned if it is needed. The 
judgment of the operator must determine the proper strength 
in both cases. The nose of the detent horn should be nicely 
flattened and the corners rounded off. 

The locking pallet should not be perfectly upright. It 
should lean a little from the centre of the wheel, and a little 
toward the foot of the detent, so that the locking takes place 
at the root of the stone, and then the action of locking and 
unlocking does not tend so much to buckle the detent. The 
face of the impulse pallet, too, should be slightly inclined so 
that it bears on the upper part of the wheel teeth. By this 
means the impulse pallet will not mark the wheel in the same 
spot as the locking pallet. 

Try if the escape wheel teeth drop safely on the impulse 
pallet by letting each tooth in succession drop on, and after it 
has dropped, turn the balance gently backward; you can then 
judge if it is safe by the amount the balance has to be turned 
back before the tooth leaves the pallet. If some teeth do not 
get a safe hold, the impulse roller must be twisted round on 
the arbor to give more drop. 

If the escapement is in beat, the balance, when the balance 
spring is at rest, will have to be turned around an equal dis- 
tance each way to start the escapement. When the balance 
spring is in repose, the back of the discharging pallet will be 
near the gold spring, and if the balance is moved around until 
the gold spring falls off the back of the pallet and then 
released, the escapement should start of itself; and in the other 
direction also, if the balance is released directly the wheel 
tooth leaves the face of the impulse pallet, the escapement 
should go on of itself. 

CHRONOSCOPE. A clock or watch in which the 
time is indicated by the presentation of numbers through 
holes in the dial. 



CHUCK. 




CHUCK. A mechanical contrivance for holding work in a 
lathe. True chucks are the most important adjuncts to a watch- 
maker's bench. A good lathe and 
untrue chucks will result in inferior 
work, while a cheap lathe with true 
chucks will permit of some good 
results. Chucks hold the work truest that come the nearest 
fitting the hole in them. Trying to hold work too large or 
too small, will soon get them out of true, and often make 

the workman dissatisfied with his 
chucks, his work, himself and his 
lathe. Wax is the only sure thing 
fig. 57. for fine staff and pivot work 

although there are many substitutes that do very well and 
with the aid of them a good workman can turn out a very 
fine job. With a good lathe, true chucks and sizes to suit, 
and a reasonable amount of prac- 
tice first-class work can be done 
with split chucks. One chuck or 
tool of any kind seldom does all 
kinds of work and does it all well, 
tion of a modern Split Screw Chuck; Fig. 57 is a Moseley 
Shoulder Chuck, and Fig. 58 an Arbor Chuck, for holding 
saws, laps, etc. 





Fig. 58. 

Fig. 56 is a good illustra- 



Adjustable Chuck. The Hopkins patent adjustable 
chuck, shown in Fig. 59, is designed to grip and hold firmly 

and accurately any size of work 
from the smallest staff to the 
largest pinion, watch wheels of 
all sizes, mainspring barrels and 
other large work, and can be ad- 
justed to any make of lathe by 
simply placing it friction tight, on 
a plug chuck fitted properly to 
the lathe. In using this chuck for 
Fig. 59. staffs, pinions, wire, etc., fasten a 

V piece 7, of proper size, in the hole in attachment 6, taking 




89 CHUCK.. 

care that both the V and the seat in which it rests are free 
from chips, dirt, etc. Then lay your work in the V and fasten 
it there by means of the sliding jaw above it. This done, 
place the attachment on the face of the chuck body, with the 
disc slipped under the heads of the two spring bolts, and then 
spin the work to center, same as when using wax. After 
centering thus, fasten the disc to place by tightening the nuts 
on the back ends of the spring bolts. 

For holding work by the web of the wheel, place the 
wheel under the screw cap on the face of attachment S and 
screw the cap down firmly on it, with the staff or pinion pro- 
jecting outward through the center hole. This done, proceed 
the same as when using No. 6. 

For main spring barrels and like work, use attachment n, 
and place a bit of broken mainspring between the work and 
the ends of the three binding screws, and tighten the screws- 
down on that instead of directly on the work. 

Bezel Chuck. The Snyder Patent Bezel Chuck, shown 
in Fig. 60, was originally intended for holding bezels only, but 
it is now made so that it will hold watch plates, coins, etc., and 
is adjustable to any size. It can be fitted to any 
lathe and requires very little practice to use it,. 
as it is extremely simple, and any one who uses- 
a lathe can make or repair bezels in a workman- 
like manner. It holds the work as in a vise,. 
and no amount of turning or jarring will loosen 
the jaws, while it may be opened and closed 
f7 g .6o. instantly by simply turning the milled nut 

behind the face plate, thus enabling the operator to turn and 
fit a bezel perfectly by trying on the case as many times as- 
as necessary. It holds the bezel by either groove, so that the 
recess may be turned out when too shallow or too small for 
the glass, or the bezel may be inverted and turned away when 
it rests too hard on the dial. It will be found especially use- 
ful in turning out the inevitable lump of solder from the 
recess in the bezel, after soldering and in fitting to case, as the 
process of soldering generally makes the bezel shorter and 
7 




CHUCK. 



90 



consequently it will not fit on the case. It also renders the 
-operation of polishing bezels after soldering, but a few minutes 
work. In turning out the recess for glass in bezels, especially 
heavy nickel bezels, it will prove a friend indeed, when for 
instance, you look through your stock of flat glasses and find 
none to fit, but have one that is just too large. All watch- 
makers know that if the groove in the bezel is imperfect it is 
apt to break the glass. The chuck is also useful as a barrel 
closer, holding work while engraving, and many other uses 
that will present themselves to the watch or case repairer. 

Cement Chuck. The Spickerman patent cement chuck, 
shown in Fig. 61, is a very handy device, as it holds and centers 
accurately any wheel in a watch while drilling, polishing or 
fitting new staffs or pinions and all danger of injuring wheels 
is obviated. It fits all kinds of American or Swiss lathes. 

The holder shown in Fig. 62 at a, 
is turned down to nearly the size of 
the screw for the lathe and the 
screw cut so the holder will set as 
close as possible to the lathe. The 
face of the holder is then turned 
perfectly true. Put wheel to be 
centered in cap c, as near to center 
as convenient and screw on b. 
Then place cement face of chuck 
b against face of holder a on the 
lathe and with a lamp, warm the 
cement between the surfaces, holding the chuck with a stick 
against the pivot of wheel in the cap, and it will move to an 
■exact center as soon as warmed sufficiently. New cement 
should be added occasionally between the surfaces, as it hardens 
and burns away and does 
not center as well as when 
new. Fig. 61 shows chuck 
with wheel inside ready for 
drilling. 

Dead Center Chuck. 
By the use of this chuck, FlG - 6 3- 





91 



CHUCK. 



shown in Fig. 63, the work can be run on dead centers as well 
as by the bow or verge lathe, and the motion continuous. 

Chuck Stepping Device. A rests in chuck slightly less 
than diameter of work. B tightens in rear end of 
draw-in-spindle. Turning c> regulates depth of step. 

By the use of this tool any wire chuck will 
accurately serve as a step chuck. It is a device of 
great service to the watchmaker when used and under- 
stood. It enables him to make a step in any wire 
chuck of any depth he may wish, and will push out 
the work if desired. It is very useful many times for 
a stop for marking or cutting off when you want a 
number of pieces of the same length or kind. Many 
object to the stepped chuck for general use, objections 
which this device obviates. 

Pivoting Chuck. The Gem patent pivoting chuck 
shown in Fig. 65, is intended as a substitute for wax 
for pivoting and like work. 

By means of the ball £, placed between the two slid- 
ing sockets c c, with the several other parts as repre- 
sented in Fig. 65, a combination of sliding and ball and 




Fig. 65. 

socket movements in connection with a spring pump 
center, is obtained. A set of ten or more, supplemen- 
tary chucks g, with different sizes of center holes, and 
Fig. 64. attachment «, for all sizes of wheels, are furnished 
with each chuck. The supplementary chuck g y in the 
form of a small split chuck, made to fit into a hole with taper 
mouth in the center of the ball b, and is drawn into place and 
the work fastened firmly in it by means of the binding nut 
zw, which screws on to a projection extending outward from 
front side of the ball. 



CHUCK. 



92 



To use this chuck proceed as follows: Remove the nut m r 
and give freedom to the working parts by loosening the large 
back nut k. Then to bring the hole through the ball 3, into 
line, spin the ball to center, first at the base of the projecting 
screw and then at the mouth of the hole through it, and in 
this position again fasten the parts, by tightening the nut k. 
Then give freedom to the pump center, by slightly loosening 
the 'set screw j. When doing this, hold your finger against 




Fig. 66. 

the front of the chuck, to prevent the center rod from shoot- 
ing out of its place when freed. Then having placed a sup- 
plementary chuck g, of proper size, in its place in the chuck, 
and your work in it, with its back end resting properly 
in the countersink in the end of the pump center, fasten it 
there by screwing the cap m down snugly over it, using a 
small lever pin when necessary for this purpose, but not with 
undue force. Then again loosen the nut k and spin the work 
to center at its outer end; and then tighten both the nut k and 
set screw /. In tightening the set screw j\ make sure it is so 
tightened as to prevent the pump center from slipping from 
place when working. If from tightening the screw j\ it is 
found that the work has been thrown in any degree away 
from true center, loosen the nut k, leaving the pump center 
fast, and again spin to center, and fasten as before. All of which 
after a little practice may be done, and the work be brought 
to absolute truth in a few moments. 

In using attachment «, for wheels, the nut m and chucks- 
are removed, and n substituted therefor; the work being held 
on the face of the attachment by flat headed screws that grip 
the arms of the wheel. For cylinder escape wheels a special 
attachment n is furnished. The best thing to use when 



93 CHUCK BOX. 

spinning work to center in the chuck, is a bit of peg wood of 
wedge shape at one end. The countersinks in the ends of the 
pump center should in all cases be carefully tested, and if need 
be trued up in the lathe in which the chuck is to be used. In 
doing this, use a good, fine-pointed sharp graver, and make 
sure the countersink is perfectly true. The same rules in re- 
gard to truth in the countersink, and having the work rest 
properly in it, are to be observed in using this chuck as when 
using wax. 

Step or Wheel Chucks. These chucks are usually 
made in sets of five, each chuck having nine steps, giving 
forty-five different sizes. These chucks are very useful in 

holding mainspring barrels, to fit 
in the cap of the barrel, should it 
become out of true. They are 
also valuable in trueing up barrels 
of English lever watches, that are 
damaged owing to the breakage 
of a mainspring. They are also 
fig. 67. very useful in holding almost any 

wheel in a watch, but particularly convenient in fitting a cen- 
ter wheel to a pinion, or in making sure that the hole in the 
wheel is in the center. These chucks are made by the various 
lathe manufacturers and are all similar to Fig. 67, and will 
hold wheels from .5 to 2.26. 

CHUCK BOX. A circular box with lid, for holding 
chucks. They are usually made of cherry or mahogany. By 
keeping your chucks in a box similar to that shown in Fig. 68, 
you can find a chuck of the desired size in a moment and the 
chucks are less liable to be damaged than when kept in a 
drawer with miscellaneous tools. 

CLEANSING, PICKLING AND POLISHING. 

To Clean Pendulums. Brass pendulum bobs are often 
found with black stains upon them that prove very obstinate 
to remove. Heat the bob moderately, touch the stains with a 
brush dipped in nitric acid, rub with a linen rag and again 
heat moderatelv. 




CLEANSING, ETC. 



94 



To Clean Silver. Articles of silver, either solid or plated 
are quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in a moderate con- 
centrated solution of potassium cyanide and then thoroughly 
rinsing in water. Jewelers will find it very convenient to 
have three stone jars, with tight fitting covers, to exclude all 
dirt. Label the jars " Cyanide," " ist Water" and " Second 
Water." In these, large pieces of silverware can be cleaned 
with ease by dipping into the cyanide, then into jar number 
one and then jar number two. Dry with a soft linen rag and 
the articles will be found free from all stains. 




Fig. 68. 

To Clean Nickel. The nickel plates of watches are some- 
times found to have rust stains upon them. These can be re- 
moved by rubbing the spot with grease, allowing them to 
stand for a few days, and rubbing thoroughly with a cloth 
moistened with ammonia. In obstinate cases, repeat the opera- 
tion or touch the stains with dilute hydrochloric acid and rub 
thoroughly. Rinse in clean water and polish. A mixture of 
fifty parts of rectified alcohol and one part of sulphuric acid is 



95 CLEANSING, ETC. 

also valuable for cleaning nickel plates. Immerse for ten or 
fifteen seconds, no longer, rinse in alcohol, and dry in sawdust. 

To Clean Brass. To clean old brass, especially small! 
figures, paper knives, etc., immerse them in a mixture of one 
part of nitric acid and half part of sulphuric acid. Allow them 
to remain a short time, rinse thoroughly in cold water, dry in 
sawdust and polish with Vienna lime, when they will appear 
like new. 

Pickling of Metals. Metals are pickled for the purpose 
of removing the oxides and producing a lustrous surface. An 
excellent pickle for brass consists of ten parts of water and one 
of sulphuric acid. Dip into this pickle, wash, dry, and im- 
mediately dip into a second pickle consisting of two parts 
nitric acid and one of sulphuric acid and rinse thoroughly. 
This dissolves the zinc from the brass, and gives the metal a 
brilliant surface. All pickling operations with either hot or 
cold pickle should be carried on in the open air or in the draft 
of a well drawing chimney, as the vapors arising from the 
acids are very injurious. In order to retain the luster, a good 
transparent varnish should be applied. 

Pickle for German Silver. To twelve parts of water 
add one part of nitric acid; immerse the article in this, quickly 
remove, and place in a mixture of equal parts of sulphuric and 
nitric acid, rinse thoroughly in water, and dry in sawdust. In 
all cases of pickling it is essential that all traces of acid be re- 
moved by frequent washings in clean water. 

Pickle for Gold Alloys. Gold alloys especially those 
containing copper, assume an unsightly dark bown extrerior,, 
owing to the copper oxide generated by the repeated glow- 
heating during work. In order to remove this, the object must 
be pickled, and either highly diluted sulphuric or nitric acid 
is used for the purpose, according to the color the article is 
designed to have. 

If working with an alloy consisting only of gold and copper,, 
either sulphuric or nitric acid may be used indefinitely, since 



CLEANSING, ETC. 96 

gold is not attacked by any one of these acids, while copper 
oxide is easily decomposed thereby, and after having been 
pickled, the article will assume the color of pure gold, because 
its surface is covered with a layer of the pure metal. 

If the alloy is composed of pure gold and silver however, 
•only nitric acid can be. employed, and the article is left 
immersed in it only for a short time; this acid dissolves a very 
small portion of the silver, and the article also assumes the 
color of pure gold. 

When working with an alloy which, besides the gold, con- 
tains both copper and silver, the process of pickling may be 
varied in accordance with the color desired to be given to 
the article. If the pickling is performed in sulphuric acid» 
the copper alone is dissolved, the article assuming a color 
corresponding to a gold-silver alloy, which now constitutes the 
surface of the article. 

If nitric acid is used, it will dissolve the silver as well as 
copper, and in this case a pure gold color is produced. 

Pickling is done by first feebly glow-heating the article and 
cooling it; this operation is for the purpose of destroying any 
fat from the hands or other contamination adhering to the 
article. If it was soldered with some easily-flowing solder, 
this glow-heating must be omitted, but it may be cleansed 
from impurities by immersing it at first into very strong caustic 
lye, and rinsing it with water; it is then laid into the acid. 

The acids are employed in a dilute state, taking forty parts 
water to one part concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid. If 
more articles than one, they had best be laid beside each other 
in a porcelain or stoneware dish, the diluted acid is poured 
over them, and some article is lifted out from time to time to 
watch the course of proceedings, whether it has assumed a 
yellow color. 

When to satisfaction they are rinsed with clean water and 
dried. While pickling for the purpose only of causing the 
color peculiar to gold to appear, the process of coloring has 
for its object to lend the appearance of very fine gold to an 
article of an indifferent alloy. Various mixtures may be em- 
ployed for the purpose, and we give two receipts below which 
are very appropriate: 



97 CLEANSING, ETC. 

Mix two parts saltpeter, i part table salt and 6 parts alum 
with 6y 2 parts water, and place in a porcelain dish for heating. 
As soon as you notice that the mixture begins to rise, add i 
part of muriatic acid, raise the whole to boiling and stir with a 
glass rod. 

The article to be colored, and previously treated with 
sulphuric acid, as specified, is suspended to a hook, either of 
sufficiently thick platinum wire or glass; it is then introduced 
into the rather slow boiling bath, and moved around in it. It 
is to be taken out in about three minutes, and rinsed in clean 
water, inspecting its color at the same time. If not to satis- 
faction, it is returned to the bath, and this withdrawing or 
reintroducing is repeated until the desired color is obtained. 
By the latter immersions the article is left only one minute at 
a time in the fluid. 

When sufficiently colored, the article, after rinsing, will be 
of a high yellow and mat color; it is washed repeatedly in 
water to remove the last traces of the bath, and then dried 
between soft and heated sawdust. 

In place of drying in sawdust the article may also be dipped 
in boiling water, leaving it in for a few seconds; the adhering 
water will evaporate almost instantaneously. 

The second coloring method consists in pouring water over 
a mixture of 115 parts table salt and 230 nitric acid, so that the 
salt is dissolved; it is then to be heated until a dry salt residue 
is again present. This residue is mixed with 172 parts fuming 
muriatic acid and heated to boiling, for which purpose a 
porcelain vessel is to be used. 

As soon as the pungent odor of chlorine gas begins to 
evolve, the article to be colored is immersed, and left for about 
eight minutes in the fluid for the first time; in other respects, 
a similar treatment, as specified above, is also used for this 
method; if the article colored was polished previously, a 
subsequent polishing is unnecessary. 

On account of the vapors evolved by the coloring baths, 
which are very dangerous to health, the operations should be 
performed either under a well-drawing flue, or what is still 
better, in open air. — Goldsch Miedekunst. 



CLEANSING, ETC. 98 

Polishing Agents. Various polishing agents are used' 
by watchmakers, jewelers, gold and silversmiths, a few of 
which are here described. Where the article will admit of 
it, the best results are obtained by polishing in the lathe. 
For this purpose the watchmaker should not use his regular 
lathe, but should have for the purpose what is known as a 
polishing lathe, fitted with its various attachments in the shape 
of scratch-brushes, buffs, etc. 

Ferric Oxide. This material is used in its natural state 
and also prepared artificially under various names, such as 
crocus, red stuff and rouge. It is used for polishing fine 
articles of steel, gold, silver, copper and bronze. 

Tin Putty is an artificial compound prepared from glow- 
ing oxalate of tin, which is obtained by decomposing tin-salt 
with oxalic acid. 

Tripoli. A gray-white or yellowish powder, which is 
made from the shells of microscopic organisms. It is used 
for polishing soft metals, first with oil, and then dry. 

Lime. This material is used in the burned and unslaked 
state. A popular variety is known as Vienna lime. See that 
heading. 

Belgian Polishing Powder. This powder is used for 
polishing articles of silver and silver plated ware. It consists 
of a mixture of 250 parts of whiting, 1 1 7 parts elutriated 
pipe : clay, 62 parts white lead, 23 parts white magnesia, and 
23 parts rouge. 

English Silver Soap. This mixture which is used for 
polishing silverware is prepared as follows: Dissolve 2 parts 
of castile soap in 2 parts of soft water over a fire; when 
melted, remove and stir in 6 parts of fine whiting, pour into 
moulds and allow it to cool. A little rouge may be added as 
coloring matter if desirable. 

English Silver Paste, Three parts of perfumed vaseline, 
5 parts of whiting, 1 part of burnt hartshorn, and one of 
pulverized cuttle bone. Stir well and put up in tin boxes. 



99 CLEANSING, ETC. 

Gold Polishing Powder. Mix together 4.3 parts of 
alumina, 17.4 of chalk, 4.3 of carbonate of lead, 1.7 of car- 
bonate of magnesia, and 1.7 of rouge. 

Polishing Paste for Brass. Dissolve 15 parts of oxalic 
acid in 120 parts of boiling water and add 500 parts of pumice 
powder, 7 of oil of turpentine, 60 of soft soap, and 65 of fat 
oil. 

The polishing agent is usually mixed with oil, alcohol or 
water to prevent scattering, and is then applied by the polish- 
ing tool in the shape of cloth and leather buffs, polishing files, 
etc. Either the work or the tool should revolve with great 
velocity in order to secure good results. Many articles are 
brought to a high degree of polish by the use of the burnisher, 
after subjecting them to the action of the ordinary polishing 
agents. See Burnisher, also Buff". 

Scratch Brushing. Articles in relief which do not admit 
of the use of the burnisher are brightened by the aid of the 
scratch brush. The shape of the brush varies according to 
the article to be operated upon. Hand scratch brushes are 
sometimes made of spun glass, with fibres of extreme fineness 
and elasticity, and are used for scouring only very delicate 
objects. They are also made of numer- 
ous wires of hardened brass and are pre- 
pared in similar form to the glass brushes, 
except when purchased the ends of the 
wires are not cut off, the operator being 
expected to do so before using them. 
Fig. 69. The object in leaving the wires con- 

nected being to prevent them becoming damaged. Circular 
scratch brushes, like that shown in Fig. 69, in which the wires 
are arranged radially, are used for scouring articles which 
will admit of their use. They are attached to the spindle of a 
polishing lathe, and the wires consequently all receive a uni- 
form motion in the same direction. Scratch brushes are sel- 
dom if ever used dry, the tool and the work being constantly 
wet with a decoction of soap-root, marshmallow, cream of 
tarter, alum or licorice root. With small articles the scratch 




•CIRCULAR ERROR. 100 

brush is held as you would a pencil, and is moved over the 
article with a backward and forward motion. The brushes 
must be carefully looked after and the wires kept straight and 
in good order. If they become greasy they are cleansed in 
caustic potash, and if they become rough they are sometimes 
dipped into nitric acid. With circular brushes it is well to 
reverse them occasionally in order to change the direction of 
the wires. Dirty polishing leathers should be cleaned by 
soaking them for an hour or two in a weak solution of soda 
in warm water, first rubbing the leather thoroughly with 
soap. Rinse thoroughly and wash in soap and water. The 
soap in the water will keep the leather soft and pliable. Dry 
it in a towel and rub it thoroughly and your leather will be 
much better than any new one you can buy. 

CIRCULAR ERROR. The difference of time in a 
clock caused by the pendulum following a circular instead of 
a cycloidal path. Britten. 

CLAMPS. Movable pieces of brass, lead, leather or cork 
attached to the jaws of a vise while holding objects that would 
be injured by the vise jaws. 

CLEAT. A narrow or thin piece of metal used to fasten 
two pieces of metal together by the aid of solder, screws or 
rivets. 

CLEPSYDRA. A water clock. A machine used anciently 
for measuring time by means of the discharge of water 
through a small aperture. 

CLICHE. The forming of metal objects by means of 
forcing a die into heated metal. 

CLICK. A pawl or dog which falls into a ratchet wheel 
and prevents it from turning backward, and is usually held 
in position by means of a spring known as the click spring. 
A ratchet wheel with click is fixed to the barrel arbor of 
watches and clocks to maintain the mainspring after being 
wound. 



101 CLUB TOOTH. 

Click Spring. The spring which holds the click in posi- 
tion on a ratchet wheel's tooth. 

To Mount a Click Spring. When the old click spring 
has been taken down from the bridge, find a new one, which,, 
in length from click to foot, into which the holes are drilled for 
fastening, is suited to the shape and length of the bridge. 
With three claws fasten this latter in an uprighting tool, 
placing the centering center into the screw hole of the bridge, 
which serves for screwing on the click spring. When the 
bridge has in this manner been mounted well upon the plate 
of the uprighting tool, raise up the centering center and lay 
the new click spring exactly as it is to be located in its place 
upon the bridge, carefully preventing the claws from cover- 
ing that part of the bridge to which the spring is fastened. 
The upper face of the spring must, by so much as will be lost 
afterwards in grinding and polishing, protrude beyond the 
surface of the barrel bridge. Then retain the spring in it& 
place by applying a finger, and lower the point of the upright- 
ing tool upon the click spring, making a dot by applying a 
gentle pressure exactly at the true spot. This dot is enlarged 
by punching, and a hole is then drilled exactly to suit the size 
of the screw. The burr is next removed, and the spring fin- 
ished suitable to shape and length. If the bridge contains a 
foot- pin hole, bush it by firmly driving into it a brass pin, file 
off its projecting part level with the bridge, and screw the 
spring in place. Then drill, as closely as possible to the ex- 
treme end of the spring, a small hole for the pin, clear through 
into the bridge. Harden the spring, anneal it, chamfer and 
polish the edges, grind and polish the surface; fit the foot pin. 

CLUB TOOTH. The form of tooth 
shown in Fig. 70 and for lever escape 
wheels having a part of the impulse angle 
on the tooth. See Lever Escapement 

COCK. The horizontal bracket which 
holds the end of a staff. A vertical or 
hang-down bracket is called a potance. 
Fig. 70. See Balance Bridge. 




COLLET. 102 

COLLET. A collar or band of metal. 2. A small col- 
lar fitted friction tight to the balance staff, and which is 
slotted to receive the lower end of the hairspring. 3. The 
part of a ring in which a stone is set. 4. The under side of a 
brilliant cut stone. 

COLLET WRENCH. A tool for twisting a hair- 
spring collet to position, which consists of a metal handle, 
hollow at the extremity for the reception of the pivot, and 
having a minute wedge-shaped projection from its face, 
which enters the slit in the collet, allowing it to be turned 
readily. 

COLORING GOLD ARTICLES. See Cleansing, 
Pickling aud Polishing. 

CLUTCH. A mechanism for connecting two shafts with 
each other or with wheels in such a manner that they may be 
readily disengaged. 

COMPASS. An instrument consisting of a magnetized 
needle turning freely on a point, used to determine horizontal 
directions in reference to the cardinal points. 

COMPASSES. An instrument for measuring figures, 
describing circles, etc., consisting of two pointed limbs, usual- 
ly pivoted together at the top. 

CONCAVE. The internal surface of a hollow rounded 
body. The reverse of convex. 

COMPENSATION BALANCE. A balance for a 
watch or chronometer which compensates the effect of varia- 
tions of temperature on the vibrations of the balance. See 
Balance. 

COMPENSATION PENDULUM. A pendulum in 
which the effect of changes of temperature on the length of 
the rod is so counteracted that the distance of the center of os- 
cillation from the center of suspension remains invariable. 



103 COMPENSATION CURB. 

COMPENSATION CURB. A bar composed of two 
metals, usually brass and steel, free to act at one end but re- 
tained at the other, the free end carrying the curb pins that 
regulate the acting length of a hairspring. Not used in Amer- 
ican watches and found only in old watches of European make. 

CONICAL PENDULUM. A revolving pendulum. 
A pendulum used only on fancy and equarorial clocks, whose 
bob revolves in a horizontal circle. 

One revolution of a conical pendulum, says Britten, is per- 
formed in the same time that a vibrating pendulum, whose 
length is equal to the vertical height of a conical pendulum, 
makes two revolutions. If extra impulse is given to a conical 
pendulum, the circle described is enlarged, the vertical height 
lessened, and the time of its revolution decreased. 

CONICAL PIVOT. A pivot whose shoulders are of 
conical form, used only in pivots 
having end stones. See Balance 
fig: 7 T. ^ Staff- PP- 49- 

CONOIDAL. Having the form of a cone. 

CONTRATE WHEEL. A crown wheel. A wheel 
whose teeth set at right angles to its plane and used ordinarily 
as a gear wheel for transmiting power from one shaft to an- 
other, standing at right angles to it. The escape wheel of the 
verge escapement. 

CONVERSION. A term in watch-making signifying 
that a change of escapement is made, as a movement original- 
ly having a duplex escapement is changed to a lever escape- 
ment. 

CONVEX. Rising or swelling into a rounded body. 
The reverse of concave. 

CONVEXO-CONCAVE. Convex on one side and 
concave on the other. 

CONVEXO-CONVEX. Convex on both sides. 

COPPER. A metal of a reddish color, malleable, duc- 
tile and tenacious. It fuses at 2,000 ° Fah. and has a specific 



104: CORUNDUM. 

gravity varying from 8.8 to 8.9. It has a breaking strain of 
48,000 lbs. per sqnare inch. In horology it is employed as a 
backing for enameled watch dials, in the construction of 
grid-iron compensation pendulums, in the manufacture of 
compensation balances, etc. When mixed with tin it forms 
bell-metal and bronze and with zinc it forms brass and other 
alloys. See Alloys. 

CORUNDUM. The earth alumina, as found native in a 
crystalline state, including sapphire, which is the fine blue 
variety; the oriental ruby, or red sapphire; the oriental ame- 
thyst, or purple sapphire. It is the hardest known substance 
next to the diamond. The non-transparent variety, dark-col- 
ored and granular is known as Emery. Dana. 

CORUNDUM-WHEELS. Wheels faced with corun- 
dum, (emery) or made of a composition of corundum and ce- 
ment. See Emery Wheels. 

COUNTER BALANCE. A mass of metal placed on 
the opposite side of a wheel to that to which a crank is at- 
tached to compensate for the weight of the latter. 

COUNTERMARK. A mark attached to gold and 
silver-ware of English make to attest its standard. See Hall 
Mark. 

COUNTERSINK. To enlarge the outer end of a hole 
for the reception of the head of a screw, bolt, etc. A tool; 
used to turn out or countersink. Fig. 72 illustrates Happers- 



^ ENLARGED V 



% ENLARGED 
ENLARGED \ ^ 



B'ig. 72. 

berger's patent, flat bottomed countersinks, which are de- 
signed for making or deepening flat-bottomed countersinks 



105 



CRANK. 




Fig. 73. 



for screw heads of any 
kind. The screw-thread 
or hole will not be injured 
in using these tools. Fig 
73 illustrates a set of wheel 
countersinks made with 



cutters on one end and burnishers on the other. Countersinks 
are also made of steel in the form of drills and from emery in 
the form of a cone, with metal handle for revolving. The 
emery countersink will be found very useful for large holes 
and for trimming the edges of holes in enamel dials. 

C RANK. The bent portion of an axis serving as a handle 
or connection for communicating circular motion, as the 
crank on a steam engine. To twist or distort, as applied to 
metals. 

CRESCENT. The concave formed in the roller of the 
lever escapement to allow the passage of the safety pin. 

CROWN-WHEEL. A wheel whose teeth are set at 
right angles to its plane. A contrate wheel. The escape 
wheel of the verge escapement is a crown wheel. 

CRUCIBLE. A melting pot capable of enduring great 
heat, without injury and used for melting metals. It is made of 
clay or clay compounded with black lead and other materials. 

CRYSTAL. A term applied to the glass of a watch case. 

CURB PINS. The two brass pins that stand on either 
side of the hairspring near its stud attachment, and are attached 
to the regulator. They effect the time of the vibration of the 
balance according as they are shifted by means of the regula- 
tor to or from the point of attachment of the spring. Some 
authors advise timing in positions by the curb pins. This 
should never be attempted. The regulator should always stand 
as near the center of the index as possible. The curb pins 

8 



CYCLOID. 



106 



should never be far from the stud and should be just wide 
enough apart to let the spring move between them and no 
more. Instead of disturbing the curb pins when timing in 
positions, add to or take from the weight of the balance. See 
Balance Screw Washers. 

CYCLOID. A curve generated by a point in the plane 
of a circle, when the circle is rolled along a straight line, keep- 
ing always in the same plane. Webster. 

The path through which a pendulum travels, to secure uni- 
formity in the time of its vibration through arcs different in 
extent should be cycloidal. 

CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT. The cylinder escape- 
ment was invented by George Graham about 1700, and was 




a. Escape Wheel. 

b. Cylinder. 

c. Entering Lip of Cylinder. 

d. Exit Lip of Cylinder. 



Fig. 74. 

e. Passage for Escape Wheel. 

f. Tooth removed, showing Stalk 

on which Teeth are supported. 

g. Collet for Balance. 



107 CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT 

an improvement upon and a development of an idea con- 
ceived by Tompion, who had prior to this time invented an 
escapement somewhat similar. It is a frictional dead beat 
escapement as distinguished from a detached escapement. It 
was, at the time of its in- 
troduction, considered of but 
little value, as its principles 
were not thoroughly under- 
stood, it was difficult to manu- 
facture, and above all the 
tendancy to excessive wear of 
the acting surfaces. The 
Swiss solved the problem by 
making both the cylinder and 
wheel of escape, steel and 
hardening them. 

The balance with this es- 
capement is mounted on a 
hollow cylinder large enough 
in the bore to admit a tooth 
of the escape wheel. Nearly 
one-half of the cylinder is cut 
away where the teeth enter, 
and impulse is given to the 
balance by the teeth, which 
are wedge-shaped, rubbing 
against the edge of the cylin- 
der as they enter and leave. The teeth of the verge escapement 
lie in a vertical plane in the plan of a watch, and the term 
horizontal, therefore, fairly distinguished the cylinder escape- 
ment when it was introduced, but now that all the escape- 
ments in general use answer to the title, "cylinder escape- 
ment " appears to be the more suitable description. 

Britten gives the following in regard to the 




Fig. 75. 
Elevation of Cylinder and One 
Tooth of Escape Wheel therein. 



ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Fig. 74 is a plan of the cylinder escapement, in which the 
point of a tooth of the escape wheel is pressing against the 




CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT 108 

outside of the shell of the cylinder. As the cylinder, on which 
the balance is mounted, moves round in the direction of the 
arrow, the wedge-shaped tooth of the escape wheel pushes 
into the cylinder, thereby giving it impulse. The tooth can- 
not escape at the other side of the cylinder, for the shell of 
the cylinder at this point is rather more than half a circle; but 

its point rests against the inner 
side of the shell untill the balance 
completes its vibration and re- 
turns, when the tooth which was 
inside the cylinder escapes, and the 
point of the succeeding tooth is 
caught on the outside of the shell. 
The teeth rise on stalks from 
the body of the escape wheel, and 
FlG - ? 6 - the cylinder is cut away just 

below the acting part of the exit side, leaving only one-fourth 
of a circle in order to allow as much vibration as possible. 
This will be seen very plainly on examining Fig. 75, which 
is an elevation of the cylinder to an enlarged scale. 

PROPORTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

The escape wheel has fifteen teeth formed to give impulse 
to the cylinder during from 20 to 40 of its vibration each 
way. Lower angles are as a rule used with large rather than 
with small sized watches, but to secure the best result either 
extreme must be avoided. In an escapement with very slight 
inclines to the wheel teeth, the first part of the tooth does not 
work, as the tooth drops onto the lip of the cylinder some 
distance up the plane. On the other hand, a very steep tooth 
is almost sure to set in action as the oil thickens. The diameter 
of the cylinder, its thickness, and the length of the wheel 
teeth are all co-related. The size of the cylinder with 
relation to the wheel also varies somewhat with the angle 
of impulse, a very high angle requiring a slightly larger 
cylnder than a low one. If a cylinder of average thickness 
is desired for an escapement with medium impulse, its exter- 
nal diameter may be made equal to the extreme diameter 
of the escape wheel x .115. 



109 CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT 




Then to set out the escapement, if alift of say 30 be 
decided on, a circle on which the points of the teeth will fall 
« „ is drawn within one re- 

. presenting the extreme 
diameter of the escape 
wheel at a distance from 
it equal to 30 of the cir- 
cumference of the cylin- 
der. Midway between 
these two circles the cyl- 
inder is planted. (See 
Fig. 77.) If the point of 
one tooth is shown rest- 
ing on the cylinder, a 
space of half a degree 
should be allowed for 
freedom between the op- 
posite side of the cylinder 
and the heel of the next 
tooth. From the heel of 
one tooth to the heel of 
the next=24° of the cir- 
cumference of the wheel 
(Vfc = 24), and from the 
point of one tooth to the 



io e 




Fig. 77. 



point of the next also=24°, so that the teeth may now be 
drawn. They are extended within the innermost dotted 
circle to give them a little extra substance, and their tips are 
rounded a little, leaving the points of the impulse planes the 
most advanced. The backs of the teeth diverge from aradial 
line from 12 to 30 to give the cylinder clearance; a high 
angled tooth requiring to be cut back more than a low one. 
A curve whose radius is about two-thirds that of the wheel is 
suitable for rounding the impulse planes of the teeth. The 
internal diameter of the cylinder should be such as to allow 
a little freedom for the tooth. The acting part of the shell 
of the cylinder should be a trifle less than seven-twelfths of a 
whole circle, with the entering and exit lips rounded as 



CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT HO 

shown in the enlarged plan, Fig. 76, the former both ways, 
and the latter from the inside only. This rounding of the lips 
of the cylinder adds a little to the impulse beyond what 
would be given by the angle on the wheel teeth alone. The 
diameter of the escape wheel is usually half that of the 
balance, rather under than over. 
Britten says of the 

EXAMINATION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

See that cylinder and wheel are perfectly upright. Remove 
the balance spring, and put the cylinder and cock in their 
places. Then with a little power on, and a wedge of cork 
under the balance to check its motion, try if all the escape 
wheel teeth have sufficient drop, both inside and out. If the 
drop is sufficient inside with none outside, the wheel is too 
small; if the reverse the wheel is too large — that is, provided 
the cylinder is planted the correct depth. If some of the 
teeth only are without necessary freedom, make a hole in 
thin sheet brass of such a size that one of the teeth that has 
proper shake will just enter. Use this as a gauge to shorten 
the full teeth by. For this purpose use either steel and oil- 
stone dust or a sapphire file, polish well with metal and red 
stuff, and finish with a burnisher. Be careful to operate on 
the noses of the teeth only, and round them both ways so that 
a mere point is in contact with the cylinder. If the inside 
drop is right, and there is no outside drop with any of the 
teeth, although it would indicate a wheel too small, it may be 
prudent to change the cylinder for one of the same inside 
diameter but thinner, rather than remove the wheel, for it 
often happens that a larger wheel would not clear the fourth 
pinion. 

If the teeth of the escape wheel are too high or too low in 
passing the opening of the cylinder, the wheel should be 
placed on a cylinder of soft brass or zinc small enough to go 
inside the teeth, with a hole through it and with a slightly 
concave face. A hollow punch is placed over the middle of 
the wheel while it is resting on the concave face of the brass 
or zinc cylinder, and one or two light taps with a hammer 



Ill CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT 

will bend the wheel sufficiently. In fact, care must be taken 
not to overdo it. It rarely happens that the wheel is free 
neither of the top nor bottom plug, but should this be the 
case, sufficient clearance may be obtained by deepening the 
opening with a steel polisher and oilstone dust or with a 
sapphire file. A cylinder with too high an opening is bad, 
for the oil is drawn away from the teeth by the escape wheel. 

If a cylinder pivot is bent, it may very readily be straight- 
ened by placing a bouchon of a proper size over it. 

When the balance spring is at rest, the balance should have 
to be moved an equal amount each way before a tooth 
escapes. By gently pressing against the fourth wheel with a 
peg this may be tried. There is a dot on the balance and 
three dots on the plate to assist in estimating the amount of 
lift. When the balance spring is at rest, the dot on the bal- 
ance should be opposite to the centre dot on the plate. The 
escapement will then be in beat, that is, provided the dots are 
properly placed, which should be tested. Turn the balance 
from its point of rest till a tooth just drops, and note the posi- 
tion of the dot on the balance with reference to one of the outer 
dots on the plate. Turn the balance in the opposite direction 
till a tooth drops again, and if the dot on the balance is then 
in the same position with reference to the other outer dot, the 
escapement will be in beat. The two outer dots should mark 
the extent of the lifting, and the dot on the balance would then 
be coincident with them as the teeth dropped when tried in this 
way; but the dots may be a little too wide or too close, and it 
will, therefore, be sufficient if the dot on the balance bears the 
same relative position to them as just explained; but if it is 
found that the lift is unequal from the point of rest, the 
balance spring collet must be shifted in the direction of the 
least lift till the lift is equal. A new mark should then be 
made on the balance opposite to the central dot on the plate. 

When the balance is at rest, the banking pin in the balance 
should be opposite to the banking stud in the cock, so as to 
give equal vibration on both sides. This is important for the 
following reason: The banking pin allows nearly a turn of 
vibration, and the shell of the cylinder is but little over half a 



CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT 112 

turn, so that as the outside of the shell gets around toward the 
center of the escape wheel, the point of a tooth may escape 
and jamb the cylinder unless the vibration is pretty equally 
divided. When the banking is properly adjusted, bring the 
balance around until banking pin is against the stud ; there 
should then be perceptible shake between the cylinder and the 
plane of the escape wheel. Try this with the banking pin, 
first against one and then against the other side of the stud* 
If there is no shake the wheel may be freed by taking a little 
off the edge of the passage of the cylinder where it fouls the 
wheel, by means of a sapphire file, or a larger banking pin 
may be substituted at the judgment of the operator. See that 
the banking pin and stud are perfectly dry and clean before 
leaving them ; a sticky banking often stops a watch. Cylinder 
watches and timepieces, after going for a few months, some- 
times increase their vibration so much as to persistently bank. 
To meet this fault a weaker mainspring may be used, or a 
larger balance, or a wheel with a smaller angle of impulse. 
By far the quickest and best way is to very slightly top the 
wheel by holding a piece of Arkansas stone against the teeth 
afterward polishing with boxwood and red stuff. So little, 
taken off the wheel in this way as to be hardly perceptible 
will have great effect. 

Fitting New Cylinder and Plugs. In most cases of 
broken cylinders the upper half is left while the lower and 
most important part is missing. Take total length over all 
first, the same as in replacing staff, which can be done by the 
use of the Staff Length Gauge, (see Gauges), and then 
measure the length of the old Cylinder from the under side of 
the hub to the end of the top pivot, and the difference between 
the two measurements will give the length of the lower part 
of cylinder and pivot, and this will serve as a guide in select- 
ing an unfinished cylinder of proper length. The cylinders 
and also cylinder plugs can be purchased from material houses 
so cheaply that it will scarcely pay the watchmaker to make 
them. See Cylinder Plugs. Having selected a cylinder 
proceed to center it in the lathe in a finely centered chuck, 



113 CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT 

leaving the lower end exposed. Turn the lower pivot first; 
then finish off the lower plug, and if necessary, turn off any 
surplus body of shell from the lower part of the cylinder as 
occasion demands. For obtaining the requisite measurements 
for the work, the little tool shown in Fig. 15 and the Staff or 
Cylinder Height Gauge shown under Gauges will be found 
useful. Saunier advocates the use of experimental cylinders 
like that shown in Fig. 78, and suggests that the workman 
will do well to make two or three different sizes dur- * 
ing his leisure moments. They can be made from |-|- 
the cylinders kept in stock by material dealers. The 1 J 
cylinder and lower plug are better to be in one piece )j i 
to increase the strength; the slot shallow and in y 
different positions, (for the position of the banking 
slot is the most difficult to ascertain), and the cylinder FlG - 7S - 
only perforated where the top plug is inserted. The top plug 
should be removed, the hole tapped, and a new plug, some- 
what longer, screwed in. The action of this tool is similar to 
the Staff Height Gauge mentioned above. 

After the lower end is finished the wax is turned away and 
the cylinder turned true and finally cut off at the proper 
length, preserving as fine a center as possible, after which the 
cylinder is reversed and finished. 

In pivoting, it is very seldom necessary to drill the cylinder, 
as the upper and lower pivots are generally the extremity of 
plugs closely fitting in each end. In most cases the top pivot 
may be replaced by resting the cylinder on a stake, the hole 
of which is of a sufficient diameter to allow of the entrance of 
the plug, and too small to allow the cylinder to pass through. 
A knee punch and a few light taps of a hammer are generally 
sufficient to drive the plug out far enough to admit of the 
turning of a new pivot. The lower plug must be driven out 
entirely (being too short to admit of turning a new pivot) 
and a new plug inserted. The plugs must be made to fit 
tightly without taper, as with a taper plug there is great 
danger of splitting the cylinder. Should the plug be very 
tight and difficulty is encountered in driving it out, a few 
light taps all around the cylinder will generally stretch it 
enough to remove the plug easily. 



CYLINDER PLUGS. 114 

CYLINDER HEIGHT TOOL. See Gauge. 

CYLINDER PLUGS. Steel plugs fitted to the ends of 
a cylinder and on the ends of which the pivots are formed. 
Cylinder plugs can be obtained ready made from material 
dealers; assorted sizes in neat boxes. 

DAMASKEEN. To decorate a metal by the inlaying of 
other metals, or by etching designs upon its surface. The em- 
belishment of the surface of metals with rings or bars is snail- 
ing and is not damaskeening, although improperly called so by 
watch makers and watch factory employes particularly. See 
Snailing, also Electro Plating, Bronzing and Staining. 

DEAD BEAT ESCAPEMENT. An escapement 
in which, except during the actual impulsion, the escape 
wheel remains stationary and does not recoil. See Graham 
Escapement. 

DECANT. To pour off a liquid from its sediment; as 
the decanting of diamond powder, prepared chalk, etc. Sau- 
nier advises the watchmaker to prepare all his smoothing and 
polishing materials by decantation, as he will by this means 
free them from hard or large particles and obtain a uniform 
grain. At the present time the watchmaker can however 
obtain diamond dust, prepared chalk, etc., ready for use, that 
are supposed to be have been properly decanted. There are 
however many poor concoctions that have not gone through 
the proper treatment, and if the watchmaker is desirous of 
doing fine work and having reliable materials always at hand 
it is well to decant these preparations even though they be 
labeled "prepared." The operation is a very simple one and 
takes but little time. The material being reduced to a pow- 
der is placed in a vessel filled with water, oil, or other liquids, 
according to the the nature of the material to be operated 
upon, and after being thoroughly stirred it is allowed to par- 
tially settle. The liquid is then poured into another vessel, 
the heavy portion remaining in the bottom of the first vessel. 
This residue is only fit for use in the very coarsest work. The 
liquid is then stirred, allowed to settle partially again and is 



115 DEMAGNETIZE!*. 

then poured into another vessel. The powder left should be 
labeled I. By successive operations, each time increasing the 
interval of time allowed for settlement, finer deposits can be 
obtained which may be labeled respectively 2, 3, 4, etc. In 
decanting diamond powder or oilstone dust, oil should be 
used; for tripoli, rottenstone, or chalk, water; and for harts- 
horn and some other materials, alcohol is used. Diamond 
powder as purchased from the material dealer can rarely be 
improved upon by manipulation unless the operator is expert. 

DEMAGNETIZER. A machine or tool used to re- 
move magnetism from parts of watches. There are several 
demagnetizers upon the market. In some of these machines 
the arc and incandescent electric light wires are attached to 
generate the magnetism, while in the Ide demagnetizer it is 
generated by the use of horseshoe magnets. 

The Greaves demagnetizer, shown in Fig. 79, is intended 

to be used either with a 
battery or electric light 
wire. The method of 
demagnetizing with this 
machine is as follows: 
turn the handle of cyl- 
inder with the right 
hand very slowly — the 
slower the better, say about forty revolutions a minute; place 
the watch immediately over the magnets with, the left hand 
holding the mainspring and heavy stem winding parts over 
the magnets so they shall be the last to pass over, and in the 
center of space dividing the magnets, but not touching them; 
hold it still for a few seconds and then slowly move it forward 
and around the edge of the magnets, approaching the front 
and against it in a circular line as indicated at No. 1, Fig. 80, 
preserving the same face toward the magnets, as in No. 2, 
and when a point indicated by a horizontal line in No. 1 is 
reached, withdraw from magnet in a straight line. If not 
successful in removing all the magnetism, repeat the opera- 
tion, only a little further away, as indicated by the dotted lines 




DEMAGNETIZE!*.. 



116 



in No. i. The case springs need not be removed to demag- 
netize them; by passing them in the same manner as the 
watch, keeping the heavy part nearest the center line between 
the magnets, the result will be obtained. 

It is well to observe the following directions in caring for 
the battery: take one pound Bichromate of Potassiun, (poison) 
and one pint of Commercial Sulphuric Acid and mix in an 
earthen vessel. Pour the acid over the Bichromate; about a 
half an hour afterwards pour over it about one gallon of water, 
stir well and let stand for ten or twelve hours. Get two one 
gallon straight earthen or glass jars for battery. Divide the 




Fig. So. 

solution between them ; place the zinc carbons into them and 
add enough water to immerse them about two-thirds, and put 
in water to replace evaporation whenever necessary. Never 
leave the zincs in the solution longer than necessary as they 
weaken the solution, but remove them as 
soon as the operation of demagnetizing is 
complete. It is well to construct a box that 
will hold the two jars, and by means of a 
pulley and two hooks attached as shown 
in Fig. 81, you can with very little trouble 
remove the zincs at any time when not in use. 
Connect the battery to the demagnetizer by 
attaching to the two binding posts one end 
fig. Si. of each of two long copper wires, and be 



O 



117 DEMAGNETIZED 

careful to see that you have metallic contact, by scraping the 
ends of the wires with a knife where they go into the posts, 
and the other two ends are to be attached, one to the zinc pole 
and the other to the carbon pole of the two zinc carbons. 

Connect the two zinc carbons with a short piece of copper 
wire, as shown in Fig. 81, attaching one to the carbon pole 
and the other to the zinc pole. To test if the circuit is 



Fig. 82. 

perfect, place a piece of steel on the magnets and it will be 
attracted very strongly to them ; on turning the roller a little, 
the current will alternate from one pole to the other, reliev- 
ing the steel and attracting it alternately. 

The Berlin Demagnetizer, shown in Fig. 82, is constructed 
on a principal similar to the Greaves, and like it, gives best 
results when used with electric light wires. Procure an 
attachment plug and fasten to the end of the flexible cord 
accompanying machine. Insert in lamp receptacle and turn on 
the current. Press down key and turn handle of commutator, 
about 150 revolutions a minute. Insert the watch or part to 
be demagnetized into the opening of magnet, and revolve very 
slowly, keeping it in a straight line with center of magnet 




DEPTH. 118 

until at a distance of two or three feet. Keep turning commu- 
tator at regular speed. Release key before ceasing to turn. 
It is not necessary to remove the movement from the case nor 
to let it remain in the magnet. While the current is on and 
the handle being turned with key down, insert the watch into 
the opening and proceed as above. 

DEPTH. The contact point between a wheel and pinion. 

DEPTHING TOOL. A mechanical device for trans- 
ferring the depthing of a wheel and pinion to a plate. Britten 
advises that before using a new depthing tool the centers be 

turned end for end, also trans- 
posed, and assertaining after 
each change if there is any de- 
viation in a circle described by 
the points, in order to test the 
truth of the tool. The tool 
F,G - 8 3- should be held in the left hand, 

with the adjusting screw pointed to the right. Place the pinion 
in the centers on the left, and the wheel on the right, first 
opening the tool sufficiently for the teeth of the wheel to 
clear the teeth of the pinion. The teeth of the wheel and 
pinion are then brought into contact by means of the regulat- 
ing screw, shown at the bottom in Fig. 83. When the 
pinion and wheel are in right contact, the tool may be secured 
with the screws furnished for that purpose. Then hold the 
tool so that you may observe the contact of wheel and pinion. 
After you are satisfied that the depthing is correct and that 
the teeth do not butt, the depth may be marked off by loosen- 
ing the binding screws, taking the wheel and pinion out of 
the tool, and while one center is kept tight and inserted in the 
hole from which the depth is to be taken, the loose center is 
brought down until it touches the plate. If the tool is found 
to be perfectly upright and all is satisfactory, tighten the loose 
center and mark the plate where the wheel or pinion is to 
be planted. The mark can then be made permanent by the 
use of a center punch or graver. 



119 DETACHED ESCAPEMENT 

DETACHED ESCAPEMENT. The escapement of 
a time piece in which the balance or pendulum, during a por- 
tion of its vibration, is detached from the train. 

DETENT. That which locks or unlocks a movement; 
the piece of steel that carries the stones that lock and unlock 
an escape wheel. 

DIAL. The graduated face of a time piece. The greater 
majority of American dials are what is known as enamel dials, 
which consist of a copper plate for a base and an enameled 
face. The process of making these dials, as carried on in our 
factories is as follows: The copper is shaped and holes 
punched in one operation. The feet are then brazed on after, 
which the enamel is applied to both the back and face, after 
which it is fired. After smoothing they are again fired, and, 
if perfect, they are sent to the painter. For many years after 
most of the other work in our factories was done by machin- 
ery, the painting of dials was hand work. The Waltham 
company, after experimenting for a number of years, finally 
brought to perfection a process by means of which the dials 
are lettered, the numerals, minute and second marks are 
printed by photography. Various processes are used in other 
factories, among them being the transfer process, which is 
effected by rubbing the enamel paint into a steel plate into 
which the lettering of the dial is countersunk, taking an 
impression from this plate upon a rubber platten and then 
transferring this impression to the dial. After painting the 
dials are again fired. 

Dials of gold, silver and other metals are extensively used, 
particularly in the Spanish- American countries. 

To Drill an Enamel Dial. Select a piece of soft copper 
wire of the diameter you wish the hole, file off the end per- 
fectly flat, and hammer into the copper a small quantity of fine 
diamond power. This form of drill will be found to perfor- 
ate the enamel of a dial quite rapidly. Broaches made in the 
same manner give excellent results. These tools can be used 



DIAL. 120 

either by revolving in the fingers or in the lathe. Emery 
countersinks will be found very useful for trimming the edges 
of holes in enamel'dials. 

To Remove a Name from Dial. Apply a little fine 
diamantine to the end of your forefinger and gently rub the 
name until it disappears. The finish can be restored by pol- 
ishing the place carefully with a small quantity of diamantine 
mixed with oil and applied by means of a small piece of cork. 
An agate burnisher is also used for the same purpose. 

To Remove Stains from Enamel Dials. Enamel 
dials sometimes have black or cloudy stains upon their faces, 
caused usually by the tin boxes in which they are shipped. 
These can be removed with a piece of soft tissue paper pre- 
viously dampened with nitric acid. Wipe the stained places, 
carefully avoiding the painted portions as much as possible, 
for in some very cheap dials the painting is not well fired and 
may be injured by the acid. Wash the dial thoroughly in 
clean water and dry in sawdust. 

To Reduce the Diameter of a Dial. Rest the dial 
in an inclined position and file the edge with a half-smooth 
file, dipping the file in turpentine occasionally, and finish with 
a fine emery stick. 

To Repair a Chipped Dial. Gently heat the surface 
of the dial and fill the hole with a compound of white lead 
and white resin heated over the flame of a spirit lamp. It is 
better to heat the blade of a knife rather than the wax and run 
no risk of discoloring the wax. Cut off a small piece of the 
wax and press firmly into the hole, allowing it to project a 
little above the dial. When cold, scrape down even with the 
dial and finish by holding it close to the flame, when the patch 
will gloss over nicely. Be careful and do not get it too close 
to the flame or you may turn the enamel yellow. A mixture 
of white lead and white wax applied and polished by friction 
is also used, but it is not as handy and is not as capable of a 
high polish. 



121 DIAMANTINE. 

To Clean Metal Dials. Silver and gold dials can be 
restored by gently heating the back over a spirit lamp and 
dipping the dial in diluted nitric acid. If the figures are 
painted however they will be removed and it will be neces- 
sary to repaint them, but if they are enameled on, the enamel, 
will not be injured. If the figures are painted the dial may 
be cleaned by brushing with powdered cream of tarter either 
dry or in the form of a paste mixed with water. Avoid all 
the painted portions and work the paste in between the 
painted portions with a pointed peg wood. Wash with warm 
water and dry by carefully patting with a soft linen rag. 

To Grind Enamel from the Back of Dial. It is some- 
times necessary to remove a portion of the enamel from the 
back of a dial to allow room for the motion work, etc. The 
most convenient method is to grind the back with emery, 
preferably in the shape of a wheel. Water should be applied 
to the work from time to time to prevent heating. 

DIAMANTINE. This polishing agent is used exten- 
sively for polishing steel, and is a preparation of crystallized 
boron. It is not applicable to brass or copper work. Rubi- 
tine and Sapphirine are similar chemical preparations; they 
act quicker but do not yield as good results. 

DIAMOND DRILLS. Pieces of copper wire, in the 
end of which are imbedded fragments of diamond in the shape 
of triangular prisms and held in place with shellac. They 
are used for drilling jewels, etc. They may be purchased, 
ready made, from material dealers. 

DIAMOND GRAVERS. These are very similar to 
diamond drills and are mounted in the same manner, but 
usually consist of larger, though shorter and stronger diamond 
fragments, and are used for shaping jewels, etc. They may 
also be obtained from material dealers. 

DIAMOND LAPS OR MILLS. These are of two 
kinds, one for grinding and the other for polishing. The 
grinding mills are copper discs from an inch to an inch and a 



DIAMOND FILES. 122 

half in diameter, into the surface of which diamond powder 
of various grades has been hammered or rolled. The polish- 
ing mills are made of box-wood, vegetable ivory, etc., and 
the powder is- applied to their surfaces in the shape of a paste 
mixed with olive oil. These mills are useful for cutting and 
polishing ruby-pallets, and other hard stones, for flattening 
stones to be used as jewels and for manipulating hard steel. 

DIAMOND FILES. Strips of copper into the face of 
which diamond powder of various degrees of coarseness has 
been hammered or rolled. Used for working ruby-pallets 
and other bard stones and hard steel. 

DIAMOND POWDER. A cutting and polishing agent 
prepared from the crushed chips from the diamond cutter's 
table, black, brown, and other inferior stones known as bort 
and small diamonds. After pulverizing thoroughly the 
powder is decanted in olive oil to various degrees of fineness. 
To be had of material dealers generally. Used for charging 
the face of mills or laps for grinding and polishing hard 
stones, etc. It is also used for drilling by being applied to 
the end of small taper piece of steel, flattened on the end for 
the reception of the powder, which is moistened with olive oil. 

DIPLEIDOSCOPE. An instrument invented by J. M. 
Bloxam in 1843, usec ^ ^ or determining the time of apparent 
noon. It consists of two mirrors and a plane glass disposed 
in the form of a prism, so that, by the reflection of the sun's 
rays from their surfaces, two images are presented to the eye, 
moving in opposite directions, and coinciding at the instant 
the sun's center is on the meridian. 

DISTRIBUTOR. Among European workman a 
countershaft is called a distributor. 

DIVIDING PLATE. See Index. 

DOG SCREWS. The screws with half heads by which 
a movement is held in its case. 

DOG. A clutch. An adjustable stop to change the motion 
of a machine tool. 



12B DBL. ROLLER ESCPT. 

DOUBLE ROLLER ESCAPEMENT. A form of 
the lever escapement in which a separate roller is employed 
for the guard action. 

DOUBLE SUNK DIAL. A dial having two sinks, 
one for the hour and another for the seconds hand. 

DOUZIEME. A unit of measurement, indicating iV 
of a line or iir of an inch. See Gauge. 

DRAW. The angle of the locking faces of the pallets* 
as in the lever escapement. 

DRAW PLATE. A plate of very hard steel for draw- 
ing wire of various shapes and diameters. They are made for 
drawing round, half-round and square wire. The plates are 
sometimes formed in jewel for working steel wire, etc. These 
plates are very handy for readily reducing wire to any desired 
diameter, and may also be employed for reducing the diameter 
of bouchons. 

DRIFTING TOOL. A tool for punching holes in 
mainsprings, etc. It consists of a frame to be held in the vise, 
through which a screw passes, and to the end of which a 
handle is attached. It is used but little in this country, as the 
mainspring punch has superceded it, being simpler and quicker 
to operate. 

DRILLS AND DRILLING. Drilling may be effected 
in two ways, by rotating the drill and holding the work 
stationary, or vice versa. The most satisfactory results, how- 
ever, are obtained by revolving the work and gradually bring- 
ing the drill into contact with it. Although it is not always 
possible to do this owing to the shape of the article to be 
drilled. A drill of the shape shown in Fig. 84 is preferable 
ri ^w for drilling hardened steel, 

\ \ 1m wm ^ e tne shape shown in Fig. 

85 is best suited for drilling 
soft steel, brass, etc. Oil or 
l^j *»** m glycerine diluted with alcohol 

Fig. S4. Fig. 85. Fig. 36. Fig. 87. is the best lubricant f or the 



DRILL REST. 



124 



1 

I 



softer metals, but when drilling hard steel turpentine should 
be used. Drills of the form shown in Fig. 86 are used for 
drilling flat bottomed holes for countersinking screw heads, 
etc. See also Countersinks. The twist drill shown in Fig. 
87 is desirable when drilling deeply, as this form of drill heats 
slowly and the particles are carried to the surface of the work . 
Pivot drills, like those shown in Fig. 88, can 
be purchased from material dealers, mounted on 
cards, and ready for use at such small cost that it 
will scarcely pay the watchmakers to make them. 
Drills of a form indicated by Fig. 89 are rec- 
ommended highly by Saunier and are known as Fig. ss. 
semi-cylindrical drills. They are made from cylindrical steel 
rods, rounded at their ends and filed down to a trifle less than 
half their thickness. The length of the point should be 
greater or less according to the nature of the 
metal to be operated upon, but under no cir- 
cumstances must the point itself be sharp. 
This form of drill should be shapened on the 
round side and not on the flat surface. It 
Fig. 89. possesses, says Saunier, the advantage that 

when placed in a drill-chuck it can be turned exactly round, 
of the required diameter and finished; so that whenever 
replaced in the chuck, one can be certain beforehand that the 
hole drilled will be of a definite diameter. With such a drill 
the hole is smoothed immediately after it is made by one or 
the other cutting edges. 



DRILL REST. In using the lathe for drilling, a great 
saving in both time and drills can be effected by using a drill 
rest similar to that shown in Fig. 90. It is well to have a half 
dozen different sizes, 
starting at ^ inch and 
increasing by % inch, 
for various classes of 
work. These rests are 
not kept by material 
dealers, but can be 
made by the watch- 




Fig. 90. 



125 DRILL STOCK. 

maker. Saw from a piece of rolled sheet brass, say tV inch 
thick, the circles required, leaving metal enough to finish 
nicely. Place a steel taper plug in the taper chuck of your 
lathe and turn down a recess, leaving a shoulder on the taper. 
Drill a hole through the brass plate to fit the steel taper tightly. 
Place the end of the taper on a lead block and proceed to 
rivit the brass plate on the taper, making sure that it is true. 
Replace the taper in the lathe-chuck and proceed to turn the 
face and edge of the brass plate perfectly true and to the 
proper size. Those who have tried to drill a straight hole 
through an object by holding it in the fingers know just how 
difficult it is to do, but by placing one of these drill rests in 
the spindle of the tail stock, placing the article to be drilled 
against it and bringing it up against the drill, you can drill 
the hole perfectly upright and avoid all danger of breaking 
the drill. 

DRILL STOCK. A tool used for holding drills, the 
more modern variety having a small 
chuck on one end for centering and 
holding the drill. These tools are '*""' Fig. 91. 
made in various forms, but the design shown in Fig. 91 is one 
of the best. 

DRILLING LATHE. The centering and drilling 

lathe, shown in Fig. 92, is used 
for centering and drilling staffs 
and pinions. The plate has 
various sizes of conical holes 
for supporting the arbor, and 

can be turned upon its center. 

These and other tools of similar 

construction can be obtained from 

all material dealers. 

DROP. The distance which the escape wheel travels 
before touching on the pallet. 

DRUM. The barrel of a turret clock on which the driv- 
ing cord is wound. There is a variety of escapement, known 





DUPLEX ESCAPEMENT. 126 

as the Drum Escapement, which is met with but little in this 
country. Britten says this variety of escapement in a continual 
source of trouble to English repairers. It receives impulse at 
every other vibration only, and the idea of the escapement 
appears to be, that by providing a long frictional rest on one 
of the pallets, the extra pressure of the escape wheel tooth, 
when the mainspring is fully wound, will be sufficient to pre- 
vent any considerable increase in the arc of vibration of the 
pendulum. Clocks with this escapements, however, often 
stop from the diminished power when the spring is nearly 
run down, again, when it is fully wound, because the small 
and light pendulum has not the energy to unlock the pallet. 

DUPLEX ESCAPEMENT. An escapement inven- 
ted by Pierre Le Roy about 1750. As first constructed, this 
escapement had two escape wheels, (from whence its name is 
derived), one used for giving impulse, and the other to lock or 
or check the wheel when the impulse tooth escaped from the 
pallet. This form was afterwards simplified by changing 
to that shown in Fig. 93. Britten says of this escapement, 
that like the Chronometer, it is a single beat escapement, 
that is, it receives impulse at every other vibration only. The 
escapement has two sets of teeth. Those farthest from the 
centre lock the wheel by pressing on a hollow ruby cylinder 
or roller fitted round a reduced part of the balance staff, and 
planted so that it intercepts the path of the teeth. There is a 
notch in the ruby roller, and a tooth passes every time the 
balance, in its excursion in the opposite direction to that in 
which the wheel moves, brings this notch past the point of 
the tooth resting on the roller. When the tooth leaves the 
notch, the impulse finger, fixed to the balance staff, receives 
a blow from one of the impulse teeth of the wheel. The 
impulse teeth are not in the same plane as the body of the 
wheel, but stand up from it so as to meet the impulse ringer. 
There is no action in the return vibration. In the figure the 
detaining roller traveling in the direction of the arrow is just 
allowing a locking tooth of the wheel to escape from the 
notch, and the pallet is sufficiently in front of the tooth from 
which it will receive impulse to ensure a safe intersection. 



127 DUPLEX ESCAPEMENT. 



The balance is never detached, but the roller on which the 
wheel teeth rest is very small and highly polished, so that 
there is but little friction from this cause, and the alteration in 
its amount is, therefore, not of such consequence as might be 
imagined. A ve^ usual proportion is for the diameter of the 
roller to be one-fifteenth of the diameter of the largest part 




Fig 93. 



a. Escape Wheel. 

b. Impulse Pallet. 

c. Locking Teeth. 



d. Impulse Teeth. 

e. Ruby Roller. 



of the escape wheel, which it intersects about 30 meas- 
ured from the centre of the roller. The impulse teeth should 
have considerable drop on to the pallet. Ten degrees is not an 
unusual amount. The escape wheel is made as light as possi- 
ble, of hard hammered brass of very fine quality. The points 
of the impulse teeth are usually two-thirds the distance of 
the points of the locking teeth from the centre of the wheel. 
The impulse pallet is sometimes jeweled. 



DUPLEX ESCAPEMENT. 128 

The staff requires to be planted with great exactness, and 
one of the most frequent causes of derangement of the 
Duplex Escapement is the wearing of the balance pivots. In 
such cases, the pivots having been re-polished, new holes, or 
at all events a new bottom hole, should be put in. See also 
that the point of each locking tooth is smooth and nicely 
rounded, and that every impulse tooth falls safely on the 
pallet; if some are shallow, twist the impulse pallet round so 
as to give more drop. Or if the roller depth is also shallow, 
carefully make the teeth of equal length by topping, and then, 
supposing it to a full-plate watch, very slightly tap the cock 
and the potance towards the wheel until the escapement is 
made safe. In a three-quarter plate the recess for the jewel 
setting may be scraped away on one side and rubbed over on 
the other. The extra amount of intersection of the impulse 
pallet in the path of the wheel teeth thus made can be easily 
corrected by polishing off the surplus amount, if any. 

It is of the utmost consequence in this escapement that all 
the jewel holes should fit accurately, and that thebalance staff 
should have very little end shake, otherwise the pivots will be 
found to wear away very quickly. 

A loose roller is occasionally the cause of stoppage. The 
staff and roller should be carefully cleaned from oil which 
would prevent the shellac from sticking, and if the staff is 
polished where the roller fits, it may be grayed for the same 
reason. Then warm the roller and fix with shellac. 

It sometimes happens that the impulse pallet, in running 
past, just catches on the impulse tooth, and when the balance 
leans towards the escape wheel, the continual recurrence of 
this causes the vibration to fall off, and gradually stops the 
watch. If the locking teeth are already the right depth, the 
fault should be corrected by polishing a very little off the 
corner of the pallet with a bell-metal polisher if the pallet is 
of steel, or with an ivory polisher and the finest diamond 
powder if it is jeweled. But the greatest care must be taken 
not to overdo it. 

A small drop of oil should be applied to the notch and no- 
where else, except to the pivots. 



129 DUPLEX HOOK. 

When the escapement is in beat, the notch in the roller is 
between the locking tooth resting on it and the line of centers, 
or a little nearer the latter ; out of beat is a cause of stoppage. 

The idea of this escapement is seductive; it conforms to the 
requirement of giving impulse across the line of centres, and 
at one time it was considered an excellent arrangement, but it 
has proved to be quite unreliable. The best proportion of 
its parts and the finest work are insufficient to prevent it set- 
ting. On the introduction of the Lever it declined, and is 
rarely made now. 

DUPLEX HOOK. The impulse pallet in the Duplex 
Escapement. 

DUPLEX ROLLER. The ruby roller of the Duplex 
Escapement. 

DUST BANDS. Thin metal bands or guards which are 
inserted between the upper and lower plates of a movement to 
exclude all dust. 

ELECTRO-PLATING, BRONZING AND 
STAINING. When Dynamo-electric machines are not 
used, Bunsen's battery is the most suitable for the execution 
of galvanic depositions. Each element is composed of a glass 
vessel which is half filled with nitric acid at 36 ° or 40 ° Be» 
and which receives a hollow cylinder of pulverized coke, 
molded and cemented at a high temperature by sugar, gum 
or tar. At the upper end of this cylinder, where it does not 
dip into the acid, a copper collar is fixed, which may be tight- 
ened at will by means of a screw. A copper band or ribbon 
is fixed to the collar, and may be connected with the zinc of 
another element. A porous porcelain sell is placed inside the 
coke cylinder, and contains a dilute solution of sulphuric acid, 
(1 part acid and 9 parts water), into which is put a bar or 
cylinder of zinc, strongly amalgamated or covered with mer- 
cury. When a battery of several elements is to be formed, 
the coke of the first element is connected with the zinc of the 
second, and so on, and the apparatus is completed at one end by 
coke communicating with the anode, and at the other by a 
zinc connected with the cathode or object to be electro-plated* 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 130 

A modification of Bunsen's battery, which is preferred by 
gold and silver electro-platers, is as follows: Each element 
is composed of an exterior vessel or pot, most generally of 
stoneware; a cylinder of zinc, covered with mercury, provided 
with a binding screw or with a copper band, whether for a 
single element or for the end of a combination of elements in 
a battery, or to connect the zinc with the carbon of another 
element; a porous cell of earthenware pipe or porcelain; a 
cylinder of graphite^ made from the residue found in old gas 
retorts. The graphite is bound by a copper band fixed to it 
by means of a wire of the same metal, all the binding being 
afterwards covered with a thick varnish to protect it from the 
acid fumes of the battery; notwithstanding the varnish, the 
acid may rise by capillary attraction and corrode the copper 
band between the carbon and the wire; therefore binding 
screws of various shapes and sizes should be used to connect 
the carbon or zinc, by means of ribbons or wires. Use con- 
ducting wires of pure copper, covered with silk, cotton, india 
rubber or gutta-percha, and preventing the metal at their 
extremities in order to effect the connections. Other batteries, 
such as Daniell's, Grove's, Smee's, etc., are used, but for a 
description of these and the dynamo-electric machines the 
readers is referred to works on this subject. 

Batteries should be placed in a room where the temperature 
does not vary greatly. Frost arrests their action, and great 
heat increases it too much. 

No matter what battery be used, there are several prelimi- 
nary conditions that must be complied with in order to produce 
satisfactory results, i. e. that the deposition may adhere firmly 
and take place uniformly. It is absolutely necessary that the 
pure metallic surface of the article be exposed, and that it be 
perfectly free from grease. The articles to be plated, if 
lustrous surfaces are desired, must first be ground and polished. 
The grease must be removed from the surface by boiling in 
potash or caustic soda, and this is followed by scouring with 
freshly burnt lime, pulverized thoroughly and free from all 
grit. If the article will not stand heat, cleanse with benzine. 
In order to free the surface of non-metallic substances, if the 



131 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

article be of iron, steel or silver, dip it in a mixture of i part 
by weight of sulphuric acid to 15 of water; if copper or brass, 
the articles are first dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, arid then 
in a mixture of 100 parts, by weight, of nitric acid, 59 of sul- 
phuric acid, 1 of common salt and 1 of soot. As soon as the 
surface of the article assumes a bright appearance, it is washed 
in clean water once or twice, avoiding handling with the fin- 
gers or greasy cloths. Wooden plyers, kept clean, serve well 
for handling. 

Avoid the injurious fumes produced by the acids, by operat- 
ing in the open air or in the draft of a chimney. In order to 
determine whether the article is entirely free from grease, dip 
it into water, and if all grease is removed, the water will 
adhere uniformly, if, however, lines and spots appear, the 
article is not thoroughly clean, and must again be put through 
the cleansing process. 

Gold Baths. Both warm and cold baths are used, the 
former being preferable as they yield denser depositions, 
require less strength of current and need not be so rich in gold 
as cold baths. Baths often differ with the tastes of the elec- 
troplater so that it is difficult to state what is the best. How- 
ever, the bath prepared with potassium cyanide is very 
extensively used by the trade and is considered the most 
profitable. In purchasing your chloride of gold where pos- 
sible, get the brown neutral variety as it is preferable to others 
as it contains less acid. 

A good warm bath, Brannt says, is prepared as follows: 
Neutral chloride of gold, 0.35 oz. ; 99 per cent potassium 
cyanide, 0.7 oz.; and water 1 quart. Dissolve the potassium 
cyanide in one-half of the water and the chloride of gold in 
the other half; mix both solutions and boil for half an hour, 
replacing the water lost by evaporation. An excess of potas- 
sium cyanide in the gold bath must be avoided, as it causes a 
pale color in the gilding. As anodes it is best to use sheets 
of fine gold, which gradually dissolve, and thus convey fresh 
metal to the bath. The current must not be so strong that a 
formation of bubbles is perceptible; it is best to use a current 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 132 

of such strength only that deposition takes place slowly, a 
coating of the greatest density being thus obtained. Avoid 
using cheap and inferior chemicals as the difference in price 
is more than offset by the loss of time and damage that often 
results from inferior grades. To obtain good results always 
use as pure water as possible, filtered rain water being the 
most desirable. The best temperature for cold baths is 66° F. 
Care should also be taken to see that the baths are covered with 
cloths to exclude dust and where it does penetrate, the baths 
should be skimmed off. 

Only copper, brass and bronze, can be directly gilded, 
other metals must first be coppered or brassed; this applies to 
good work. In gilding parts of watches, gold is seldom 
directly applied upon the copper, there is generally a prelimi- 
nary operation called graining by which a slightly dead 
appearance is given to the articles. They are thoroughly 
finished, all grease removed as described above, — threaded 
upon a brass wire, cleansed in the compound acids for a bright 
luster and dried in sawdust. The pieces are fastened upon 
the flat side of a piece of cork by means of brass pins and the 
parts are thoroughly rubbed over with a clean brush dipped 
in a paste composed of fine pumice stone powder and water. 
The brush is moved in circles in order to rub evenly. 
Thoroughly rinse in clean water in order to remove every 
particle of pumice stone, both from the article and the cork. 
Place the whole in a weak mercurial solution, composed of 
nitrate of mercury j\ oz.; water 2| gal.; sulphuric acid \& . ; 
which will slightly whiten the copper. Pass quickly through 
this solution and then rinse. After the parts are grained in 
the manner described, they may be gilded the same as ordinary 
work. For the production of a thick deposit frequent scratch- 
brushing of the articles is absolutely necessary, the brush 
being moistened with a decoction of soap-root or solution of 
tartar. 

Red Gold. To obtain red gold, a solution of copper cyan- 
ide in potassium cyanide are added in small portions until the 
desired tone is obtained; it may also be obtained by suspend- 
ing a few copper anodes beside of the gold anodes. 



138 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

Green Gold. To obtain green gold add cyanide or 
chloride of silver dissolved in potassium cyanide, or suspend 
silver anodes beside of the gold anodes. 

Dead Luster. This is affected by various means. The 
article to be plated, may by the means of acids, be given a 
dead luster surface before plating or it may be effected by the 
slow deposit of a large quantity of gold. The latter is the 
more desirable but most expensive. If the article be of brass 
it may be dipped in a mixture of 3 parts of nitric acid, contain- 
ing 1 part of zinc in solution, with 8 parts of pure, strong, 
nitric acid and 8 parts of boiling sulphuric acid. After the 
effervescence has ceased the brass is taken out and is found to 
have assumed a dead brown surface. After being drawn 
through strong nitric acid it assumes a lustrous surface. 

Imitation Damaskeen in Gold and Silver. A beauti- 
ful effect is produced on iron and steel objects by imitation 
damaskeen in gold or silver. First copper the entire surface 
of the articles and by means of liquid asphalt trace upon their 
surfaces the figures or lines to appear in gold or silver. By 
then dipping the articles into a solution of chromic acid, the 
coppering is dissolved where it is not protected by the asphalt. 
The asphalt is then removed by the application of oil of 
turpentine, and the gilding executed in the usual manner. 
The same result is achieved with platinum articles by substitut- 
ing nitric for chromic acid. 

Silver Baths. Brannt says, that for ordinary gal- 
vanic silvering 0.35 oz. of fine silver ( = 0.56 oz. of nitrate of 
silver, or 0.47 oz. of chloride of silver), is dissolved in a solu- 
tion of 0.7 oz. of 98 per cent potassium cyanide in 1 quart of 
water. For heavy silvering of knives, forks, etc., a stronger 
bath is used: 0.88 oz. of fine silver, ( = 1.17 oz. of chloride 
of silver, or 1.03 oz. of cyanide of silver,) is dissolved in a 
solution of 1.75 oz. of 98 per cent, potassium cyanide in 1 
quart of water. No accurate statement can be made in regard 
to the content of potassium cyanide in the bath, as it depends 
on the strength of the current used. With a very weak cur- 
rent, and consequently slow precipitation, somewhat more 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 134 

potassium cyanide may be used than with a stronger current 
and more rapid precipitation. The anodes, for which fine 
silver is used, will indicate by their appearance whether the 
bath contains too much or too little potassium cyanide. They 
should become gray during silvering, and gradually reassume 
their white color after the interruption of the current. If 
they remain white during silvering, the bath contains too 
much potassium cyanide, and, if they turn black, and retain 
this color after the interruption of the current, potassium 
cyanide should be added. 

The articles to be silvered should be moved constantly to 
avoid the formation of streaks. Before silvering the metals 
must be prepared by amalgamation. This is done by dipping 
the articles, previously freed from grease, as explained above, 
in a dilute solution of mercurous nitrate (30 to 150 grains per 
qt.); allowing them to remain in the solution only long 
enough to become uniformly white. Rinse them in water, 
brush off with a clean soft brush, and immediately place in 
the silver bath. S:eel, iron, zinc, tin, nicked and Britannia 
ware must first be coppered and then amalgamated before 
being placed in the bath. 

The articles remain in the bath from ten to fifteen minutes, 
when they show a uniformly white surface; they are then 
taken out, scratch-brushed with a brass brush to see that the 
deposit adheres, all grease removed, and then placed in the 
bath. After the current is shut off, the articles should be left 
in the bath a few seconds to prevent the deposit from turning 
yellow. 

If the articles are not to be burnished, but are to be 
left with a mat as they come from the bath, they must be 
thoroughly rinsed in water without coming in contact with 
the fingers or the sides of the vessel, then dipped in clean 
hot water and hung up to dry. They then should be coated 
with a colorless laquer to prevent turning yellow. If the 
articles are to have a polished surface, they are to be finally 
scratch-brushed with frequent moistening with soap-root, 
dried in warm sawdust and burnished with a steel or stone 
burnisher. 



135 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

Nickel Baths. Iron and steel must be prepared by 
immersing in a hot solution of caustic soda or potash, thor- 
oughly brushed, rinsed in water and dipped in a pickle of I 
part sulphuric acid, 2 parts hydrochloric acid and 10 parts of 
water, again rinsed, thoroughly rubbed with fine well 
washed pumice stone or Vienna lime, again rinsed and put in 
the bath. If finely polished tools, they may be brushed with 
whiting or tripoli instead of pumice stone. Copper wire 
should be tightly wound around all metal articles. Small 
articles may be suspended from copper hooks. The battery 
or dynamo is placed in action before immersing the articles, 
which remain in the bath until they have acquired a white 
appearance, which will be in from five to thirty minutes, 
depending on the strength of the current and the size of the 
article. In case the article assumes a gray or black color, or 
feels rough and gritty, the current is too stiong, or if it 
assumes a yellowish white appearance, it is too weak. The 
simplest nickel bath consists of a solution of pure double 
sulphate of nickel and ammonium S to 10 parts by weight in 
100 parts of distilled water. Boil the salt in a corresponding 
quantity of water, say 8 to 10 parts of nickel salt to 100 of 
water, depending on the temperature. With this bath cast 
nickel anodes and a strong current should be used. The 
article after its removal from the bath should be dipped for a 
few seconds in boiling water, drained and dried in warm 
sawdust. They may then be polished, but cannot be burnished. 
The luster on nickel-plated objects depends greatly on the 
polish given them before plating. The composition of nickel 
baths depends greatly upon the metals to be operated on 
which can best be determined by experiment. The anodes 
should be suspended by strong hooks of pure nickel wire, and 
the articles should be placed at a distance of from 3^ to 4^ 
inches from them. If the article is to receive a thick deposit 
it should be turned in the bath from time to time, from end to 
end, so that these portions which were down come up. Small 
articles which cannot be suspended are placed in a sieve, it 
being preferable to use a heated bath for the purpose. Iron, 
steel, copper, brass and bronze are usually nickeled directly 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 136 

but Britannia ware, zinc and tin are coppered or brassed before 
nickeling. In case a freshly prepared bath yields a dark 
deposit it can generally be remedied by working the bath for 
two or three hours. 

Doctoring. This term is applied to plating defective 
places which occurred either by accident or negligence on the 
part of the operator. It is equally applicable to gold, silver 
or nickel plated articles. Take a piece of the anode, be it 
gold, silver or nickel, about the size of your little finger, and 
connect it with the positive pole by a thin copper wire. 
Around this anode wrap a piece of ordinary muslin several 
times; hold the defective article on the top of the positive 
pole, and after dipping the anode in the solution until the 
muslin is thoroughly soaked, move it to and fro over the 
defective place, and a coating is thus formed. 

Aluminum Baths. Reinbold's formula for an aluminum 
bath which is said to give excellent results is as follows: In 
300 parts, by weight, of water, dissolve 50 parts of alum, and 
to this add 10 parts of aluminum chloride. Heat to 200 F. 
and when cold, add 39 parts of cyanide of potassium. Use a 
feeble current. Aluminum is one of the most difficult and 
uncertain of metals to deposit electrically. 

Brass Baths. Carbonate of soda 10^ ozs.; water 10 qts. ; 
neutral acetate of copper 41^ ozs.; chloride of zinc 41^ oz.; 
bisulphate of soda 7 ozs.; potassium cyanide, 98 per cent, 14 
oz., arsenious acid 30^ grs. Dissolve the carbonate of soda in 
5 qts. of the water, and then add gradually the bisulphate of 
soda. Now stir together the acetate of copper and chloride 
of zinc with 2 qts. of the water, and slowly and with constant 
stirring, pour the mixture into the solution of the soda salts. 
Add the solution of potassium cyanide in 3 qts. of water, 
then the arsenious acid, and boil the whole for a few hours, 
replacing the water lost by evaporation; when cold filter the 
solution. 

Copper Baths. The composition of these baths must 
depend on the purposes for which they are to be used. The 



137 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

acid copper bath is used for plastic deposits of copper, but 
cannot be used for the electro-positive metals, zinc, iron, tin, 
etc., as they decompose the solution and separate from it 
pulverulent copper, while an equivalent portion of zinc, iron, 
etc. is dissolved. Alkaline baths are therefore exclusively 
employed with these metals. 

A good bath is prepared by Brannt as follows: Water, 10 
qts. ; crystallized bisulphate of soda, 7 oz.; crystallized carbon- 
ate of soda, 14 oz.; neutral acetate of copper, 7 oz.; potassium 
cyanide, 75 per cent, 7 ozs.; spirit of sal-ammoniac 4.4 ozs. 

In order to get a good copper deposit on wax figures, etc., 
brush the figure with alcohol, and then brush with finely 
pulverized plumbago with a soft hair brush, until the plum- 
bago is thoroughly incorporated into the surface of the object. 
Place a copper wire in the wax figure and work the plumbago 
thoroughly over it with the brush, so as to make a perfect 
electric connection between the wire and the wax coating. 
A saturated solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol), and 
water is then made, stirred frequently and left to stand for 24 
hours before using. A copper anode is used and is attached 
to the carbon or copper pole of the battery and the wax 
object, by means of its wire is attached to the zinc pole. 

Recovery of Gold from Bath. To recover gold from 
bath evaporate the bath to dryness, mix the residue with 
litharge and fuse the mixture. A lead button is thus formed 
in which all the gold is contained. Dissolve the button in 
nitric acid, and the gold will remain behind in the form of 
small flakes. Filter off and dissolve the flakes in aqua regia. 

Recovery of Silver from Bath. To recover silver from 
cyanide bath; evaporate the bath to drynesss, mix the 
residue with a small quantity of calcined soda and potassium 
cyanide and fuse in a crucible, and the metal will be found in 
the form of a button in the bottom of crucible. 

Recovering Gold From Coloring Bath. Dissolve a 
handful of sulphate of iron in boiling water, and add it to 
your "color" water; it precipates the small particles of gold. 
Now draw off the water, being very careful not to disturb the 

10 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 138 

auriferous sediment at the bottom. You will now proceed to 
wash the sediment from all traces of acid with plenty of boil- 
ing water; it will require three or four separate washings, 
with sufficient time between each to allow the water to cool 
and the sediment to settle, before passing off the water. Then 
dry in an iron vessel by the fire and finally fuse in a covered 
skittle pot with a flux. 

A Grained or Matted Surface on Brass. Dissolve a 
little table salt in a mixture of equal parts of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids. The articles are to be well ground and 
thoroughly cleaned. They are then suspended by a horse- 
hair in the solution for a few seconds. They are then with- 
drawn and afterwards dipped into hot water, after which they 
are scratch brushed with beer, for which operation you can 
use a brush of brass or German silver. This being done the 
parts are silvered with ease, and again scratch brushed and 
then gilt. In this manner an equally grained surface of a 
uniform and desirable color is obtained. This method is 
equally applicable to articles of copper or German silver. A 
coarser grain can be obtained by the addition of a little more 
salt. 

Gilding Steel. Steel may be gilded by means of a solu- 
tion of gold and ether. To do this a quantity of gold is dis- 
solved in nitro-muriatic acid, and then boiled until the liquid 
evaporates, when the residue is dissolved afresh in water, to 
which is added 3 times as much sulphuric ether. The liquid 
is then left for 24 hours in a bottle, tightly corked, after 
which time it will be seen to float on the surface of the water. 
If the steel is then dipped into it, it will become gilded imme- 
diately, and if designs have been painted on the surface of 
the metal with any varnish, a beautiful specimen of a steel and 
gilded surface is obtained. For other metals the galvanic 
process is employed. 

Nickel Plating Without a Battery. The article to 
be plated must be free from rust or greasy matter, and the 
chemicals be pure. Prepare a weak solution of chloride of 



139 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC 

zinc containing about 5 to 10 per cent, of the salt — say 1 to 2 
ounces of the chloride to 9S or 99 ounces of water. To this 
add enough sulphate of nickel to turn the solution a deep green 
color; the solution is then heated to the boiling point in a 
VVedgewood or other porcelain vessel. Next suspend the 
object in the water for half an hour, when a brilliant white 
coating will be formed; then wash the article and carefully 
dry it. Articles thus plated will bear light cleaning with 
whiting. The solution may then be poured off, filtered, and 
used again with a small addition of the chloride of zinc and 
the sulphate of nickel. In like manner, a covering of cobalt 
may be obtained by using sulphate of cobalt in place of sul- 
phate of nickel. The color of the cobalt is very nearly like 
that of polished steel, with a slight rose tint, but it does not 
rust. 

Nickel Plating by Boiling. Prepare a bath of pure 
granulated tin, tartar and water, which heat to the boiling 
point, and add a small quantity of pure red hot nickel oxide. 
A portion of the nickel is soon dissolved, as is shown by the 
green color assumed by the liquid which stands upon the 
grains of tin. If articles of copper or brass are plunged into 
the bath, they become covered in a few minutes with a white, 
beautiful silvery metalic coating, which consists almost 
entirely of pure nickel. If a little carbonate or tartrate of 
cobalt is added to the bath, a bluish shade, either light or dark, 
may be given to the coating, which becomes very brilliant 
when it is properly polished with chalk or dry sawdust. 

Aniline Bronzing Fluid. A bronzing fluid which is 
said to be very brilliant, and appliable to all metals, as well as 
to other substances, is prepared as follows: Take 10 parts of 
aniline red, and 5 parts of aniline purple, and dissolve in 100 
parts of 95 per cent alcohol, accelerating the solution by 
placing the vessel in a sand or water bath. Solution having 
been effected, add 5 parts of benzoic acid, and boil for from 5 
to 10 minutes, until the greenish color of the mixture has been 
converted into a fine, light-colored bronze, which is applied 
with a brush and dries quickly. 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 140 

Antique Bronze. The green stain of verdiris can be given 
to bronze by covering the spots to be discolored with ground 
horse radish saturated with vinegar, and keeping the mixture 
wet with vinegar, until the stain has become fixed. This will 
require some days, for though the discoloration will show 
after a few hours, it will be superficial and vanish by wiping. 
Three or four days will, however, turn your bronze into an 
antique, so far as appearances go. 

Antique Green. An imitation of antique bronze can be 
applied to new articles by the following process: Dissolve 3 
parts of common salt, 1 part of sal-ammoniac and 3 parts of 
powdered tartar in 12 parts of boiling water. Add 8 parts of 
a solution of cupric nitrate, and coat the articles with the liquid. 

Black Bronze for Brass, i. Dissolve i oz. of copper 
carbonate in 8^ fluid ounces of spirit of sal-ammoniac. Add 
one pint of water an stir constantly. The articles to be colored 
should be suspended in the liquid by means of brass or copper 
wires for a short time. The coating adheres better if the 
articles are polished with coarse emery paper. 

2. Brush the brass with a diluted solution of nitrate of 
mercury, and then several times with a solution of liver of 
sulphur.* 

Black Stain for Gun Barrels. Polish the barrel 
thoroughly and coat by means of a woolen rag, with a very 
thin layer of olive oil, and then dust over with hardwood ash. 
Heat over glowing coals and allow it to cool slowly; when 
cool brush over with water containing a few drops of hydro- 
chloric acid to the pint and then quickly wash in water. The 
iron portions of the damaskeened barrels will appear black 
while the steel portions will come out white. The barrel is 
then dried and finally rubbed with oil. 

Blue Bronze. Cleanse the metal from all grease by 
dipping in boiling potash lye and afterwards treat it with 
strong vinegar. Wipe and dry the article thoroughly and 

*Fused sulphuret of potassium, so called from its resemblance to 
liver in color. 



141 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

rub it with a linen rag, moistened with hydrochloric acid. 
Allow the coating to dry for a quarter of an hour, and then 
heat the article on a sand bath, until it assumes the desired 
color, when it should be removed. 

Blue Stain for Iron and Steel. Make a mixture of 
hydrochloric acid 16 parts, fuming nitric acid 8, and butter of 
antimony 8. The hydrochloric acid should be added to the 
other ingredients a drop at a time to avoid heating. Apply 
the mixture to the metal (after thoroughly polishing with 
lime) with a rag, and rub with a piece of green young oak 
wood until the desired color is produced. 

Bronze for Copper. In ioo parts of acetic acid of 
moderate concentration, or in 200 parts of strong vinegar 
dissolve 30 parts of carbonate or hydrochlorite of ammonium 
and 10 parts each of common salt, acetate of copper and 
cream of tarter. Rub the object with the solution and allow 
it to dry for forty-eight hours. The object will then be found 
entirely covered with verdigris. Brush with a waxed brush 
and especially the relieved portions. 

Bronze for Small Brass Articles. Oxide of iron, 3 parts ; 
white arsenic, 3 parts; hydrochloric acid, 36 parts. Clean the 
brass thoroughly and apply with a brush until the desired 
color is obtained. Oil well and finish by varnishing or 
lacquering. 

Bronze Liquid. Dissolve sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; alum, ^ 
oz.; arsenic, 1^ oz.; in strong vinegar, 1 pt. The compound 
is immediately fit for use, and, where the metal is good, is 
seldom found to fail. 

Bronze for Medals. The following process of bronzing 
is carried on in the Paris mint. Powder and mix 1 pound 
each of verdigris and sal-ammoniac. Take a quantity of this 
mixture, as large as a hen's egg, and mix into a dough with 
vinegar. Place this in a copper pan (not tinned), boil in 
about 5 pints of water for 20 minutes, and then pour off the 
water. For bronzing, pour part of this fluid into a copper 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 142 

pan, place the medals separately in it upon pieces of wood or 
glass, so that they do not touch each other, or come in contact 
with the copper pan, and then boil them in the liquid for a 
quarter of an hour. 

Bronze for Steel. Methylated spirit, i pint; gum 
shellac, 4 ounces; gum benzoine, 5^ ounce. Set the bottle in 
a warm place, with occasional agitation. When dissolved, 
decant the clear part for fine work, and strain the dregs 
through muslin. Now take 4 ounces powdered bronze green, 
varying the color with yellow ochre, red ochre and lamp 
black, as may be desired. Mix the bronze powder with the 
above varnish in quantities to suit, and apply to the work, 
after previously cleansing and warming the articles, giving 
them a second coat, and touching off with gold powder, if 
required, previous to varnishing. 

Brown Bronze. Brown bronze is prepared the same as 
blue bronze, but the blue bronze is finally rubbed over with a 
linen rag saturated with olive oil, which will change the blue 
color into brown. 

Brown Stain for Copper. To produce a dark-brown 
color upon copper, take the white of an egg, beat it into froth, 
add a little boiled or rain water, and add to this mixture caput 
mortuum (red oxide of iron) ; rub them well together in a 
mortar, and sufficiently thick until the color covers, and may 
be applied. The copper articles are to be pickled and simply 
washed; no sand must be used, else the color adheres badly. 
The latter is next applied with a brush until it covers the sur- 
face ; it is then dried by a fire, the article is gently rubbed with 
a soft rag and caput mortuum powder, and finally hammered 
with a hammer with polished face. 

Brown Stain for Gun Barrels. Mix 12 parts of a 
solution of sulphate of iron, 16 parts of sulphate of copper, 16 
parts of sweet spirit of nitre and 12 parts of butter of anti- 
mony. Let the mixture stand in a well corked bottle for 
twenty-four hours and then add 500 parts of rain water. 



143 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

Thoroughly polish and clean the barrels, wash with fresh 
lime water, dry thoroughly and apply the mixture evenly 
with a piece of cotton. After drying for twenty-four hours, 
brush with a scratch brush and repeat the coating. Do this 
twice, the last time using leather moistened with olive oil in 
lieu of the scratch brush, rubbing thoroughly. After stand- 
ing for ten or twelve hours, repeat the polishing with sweet 
oil and leather until a beautiful polish is obtained. 

Chinese Bronze. Small articles bronzed by this process 
possess a peculiar beauty, and lose none of their lustre, even 
when exposed to atmospheric influences and rain. Powder 
and mix thoroughly 2 parts of crystalized verdigris, 2 parts of 
cinnabar, 2 of sal-ammoniac, 2 of bills and livers of ducks, and 
5 of alum. Moisten the mixture with water or spirit of wine, 
and rub it into a paste, cleanse the article to be bronzed 
thoroughly, and polish it with ashes and vinegar. Then 
apply the paste with a brush. Heat the article over a coal 
fire, and wash the coating off. Repeat this operation until 
the desired brown color is obtained. By adding blue vitriol 
to the mixture, a chesnut brown color is produced, while an 
addition of borax gives a yellowish shade. 

Gold Bronze for Iron. Dissolve 3 ounces of finely 
powdered shellac in 13^ pints of spirit of wine. Filter the 
varnish through linen and rub a sufficient quantity of Dutch 
gold with the filtrate to give a lustrous color to it. The iron, 
previously polished and heated, is brushed over with vinegar, 
and the color applied with a brush. When dry the article 
may be coated with copal lacquer to which some amber 
lacquer has been added. 

Gold Tinge to Silver. A bright gold tinge may be given 
to silver by steeping it for a suitable length of time in a weak 
solution of sulphuric acid and water, strongly impregnated 
with iron rust. 

Gold-Yellow Color on Brass. A gold like appearance 
may be given to brass by the use of a fluid prepared by boiling 
for about 15 minutes, 4 parts caustic soda, 4 parts milk sugar, 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 144 

and ioo parts water, after which 4 parts of a concentrated 
solution of sulphate of copper is added with constant stirring. 
The mixture is then cooled to 79 C, and the previously well 
cleaned articles are for a short time laid into it. When left in 
it for some time they will first assume blueish and then a rain- 
bow color. 

Gray Stain for Brass. Many black and gray pickles 
possess the defect that they give different colors with different 
copper alloys, while in the case of certain alloys they refuse to 
act altogether. For instance, carbonate of copper, dissolved 
in ammonia, gives to brass a handsome, dark-gray color, while 
it does not whatever attack various other alloys; therefore it 
is little suitable for instruments. A dark-gray pickle, which 
almost indiscriminately stains all copper alloys a handsome 
gray, resembling in color the costly platinum, is composed by 
dissolving 50 grams arsenic in 250 grams hydrochloric acid, 
and adding to the solution 35 grams chloride of antimony and 
35 grams finely pulverized hammer scales. The articles to be 
pickled are rinsed in a weak, warm soda solution, prior to as 
well as after immersion, to be followed by continued rinsing 
in water. The recipe is simple, and has been repeatedly 
tested with uniformly good results. 

Green Bronze for Brass. Add to a solution of 8^ 
drachms of copper in i ounce of strong nitric acid, 10^ fluid 
ounces of vinegar, 31^ drachms of sal-ammoniac, and 6^ 
drachms of aqua-ammonia. Put the liquid in a loosely corked 
bottle, and allow it to stand in a warm place for a few days, 
when it may be used. After applying it to the ai tides, dry 
them by exposure to heat, and when dry, apply a coat of lin- 
seed oil varnish, which is also dried by heat. 

Imitation of Antique Silver. The article is dipped in a 
bath of water containing about 10 per cent, of sulphide of 
ammonium, and then scratch-brushed with a brush made of 
glass threads or bristles. When afterward burnished with an 
agate tool its surface becomes a beautiful dark brown color. 

Oxidizing Silver. 1. Place the silver or plated articles 
in a solution of liver of sulphur diluted with spirit of 



145 ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 

sal-ammoniac. They are then taken out, washed, dried and 
polished. This process produces a blue-black tint, while a 
solution of equal quantities of sal-ammoniac and blue vitriol 
in vinegar gives a brown shade. 

2. Sal-ammoniac, 2 parts; sulphate of copper, 2 parts; 
saltpeter, 1 part. Reduce these ingredient to a fine powder, 
and dissolve in a little acetic acid. If the article is to be 
entirely oxidized, it may be dipped for a short time in the 
boiling mixture; if only in parts, it may be applied with a 
camel-hair pencil, the article and the mixture both being 
warmed before using. 

3. There are two distinct shades in use, one produced 
by chloride, which has a brownish tint, and the other by 
sulphur, which has a bluish-black tint. To produce the former 
it is only necessary to work the article with a solution of 
sal-ammoniac; a much more beautiful tint, however, may be 
obtained by employing a solution composed of equal parts of 
sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac in vinegar. The fine 
black tint may be produced by a slightly warm solution of 
sulphate of potassium or sodium. 

Silvering for Copper or Brass. 1. Mix 1 part of 
chloride of silver with 3 parts of pearl ash, \y 2 parts common 
salt, and 1 part whiting; and well rub the mixture on the sur- 
face of brass or copper (previously well cleaned), by means of 
a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened with water and 
dipped in the powder. When properly silvered, the metal 
should be well washed in hot water, slightly alkalized, then 
wiped dry. 

2. Mix three parts of chloride of silver with 20 parts finely 
pulverized cream of tartar, and 15 parts culinary salt. Add 
water in sufficient quantity, and stir until the mixture forms a 
paste, with which cover the surface to be silvered by means 
of blotting paper. The surface is then rubbed with a rag and 
powdered lime, washed, and rubbed with a piece of soft cloth. 
The deposited film is extremely thin. 

Silvering Small Iron Articles. The small iron articles 
are suspended in dilute sulphuric acid until the iron shows a 



ELECTRO-PLATING, ETC. 146 

bright clean surface. After rinsing in pure water, they are 
placed in a bath of a mixed solution of sulphate of zinc, sul- 
phate of copper, and cyanide of potassium, and there remain 
until they receive a bright coating of brass. Lastly they are 
transferred to a bath of nitrate of silver, cyanide of potassium, 
and sulphate of soda, in which they quickly receive a coating 
of silver. 

Silver Plating Without a Battery, i. The process 
consists in exposing the article, which has previously been 
well cleansed with a potash solution and dilute hydrochloric 
acid, to the operation of a silver bath, which is prepared in 
the following manner: Form a solution of 32 grams (1 oz., 
13.8 grains) nitrate of silver, 20 grams silver (12 dwts., 20.6 
grains) in 60 (1 oz., 18 dwts., 13.9 grains) grams nitric acid, 
the silver is precipitated as silver oxide with a solution of 20 
grams solid caustic potash in 50 grams (1 oz., 12 dwts., 3.6 
grains) distilled water, carefully washed, and the precipitate 
taken up by a solution of 100 grams (3 oz., 4 dwts., 7.2 grains) 
cynide of potassium in 500 grams distilled water. The fluid, 
distilled through paper, is finely diluted with distilled water 
to 2 liters (4^ pints). The thus prepared silver bath in gently 
warmed in the water bath, and the article to be silver plated 
laid in it and kept in motion for a few minutes, and after 
taking out it is dried in sawdust, and then polished with 
Vienna chalk for giving luster. 

2. For rapid silver plating, prepare a powder of 3 parts of 
chloride of silver, 20 parts carefully pulverized cream of 
tartar, and 15 parts pulverized cooking salt; mix it into a thin 
paste with water, and rub it upon the well cleaned metallic 
surface with blotting paper. After you are certain that all 
parts of the article have been touched alike, rub it with very 
fine chalk powder or dust upon wadding or other soft cloth. 
Wash with clean water and dry with a cloth. 

3. Dissolve 1 oz. nitrate of silver, in crystals, in 12 oz.soft 
water; then dissolve in the water 2 oz. cynide of potash, shake 
the whole together, and let it stand until it becomes clear. 
Have ready some half-ounce vials, and fill half full with Paris 
white, or fine whiting, and then fill up the bottles with the 



147 EMERY. 

liquid, and it is ready for use. The whiting does not increase 
the coating power, it only helps to clean the article, and save 
the silver fluid, by half filling the bottles. 

4. Make a solution of 4 ounces lunar caustic (equal to a 
solution 2^ ounces silver in 7^ ounces nitric acid); the silver 
of this solution is precipitated as oxide of silver by the addi- 
tion of a solution of 2^ ounces of caustic potash in 65^ ounces 
distilled water; and the precipitate, after being washed, is 
added to a solution of 12^ ounces of cynide of potassium in 
one quart of water. This solution is then filtered and water 
added to bring it to 4 quarts. In this solution, which is heated 
on the water bath, the pieces to be silvered are left for a few 
minutes. Being agitated, they are taken out, and put to dry 
in fine sawdust and then polished. 

Steel-Blue on Brass. Dissolve \y 2 drachms of antimony 
sulphide and 2 ounces of calcined soda in 7/^ pint of water. 
Add 2^ drachms of kermes, filter, and mix this solution with 
another of 2^ drachms of tartar, 514 drachms of sodium 
hyposulphite and ^ pint of water. Polished sheet brass 
placed in the warm mixture assumes a beautiful steel-blue. 

To Give Copper a Durable Luster. Place the copper 
articles in a boiling solution of tartar and water for fifteen 
minutes. Remove, rinse off w T ith cold water and dry. 

EMERY. The dark colored and non-transparent variety 
of corundum. See Corundum. 

EMERY COUNTERSINKS. See Countersinks. 

EMERY FILES, PENCILS AND STICKS. 

Emery files are to be had ready made from all material 
dealers and consist of wooden handles to which emery cloth 
is glued. Emery pencils are kept by some dealers and will 
be found very useful for grinding the inside of metal objects, 
and also on small work of various kinds, being easy to handle, 
clean and light. Emery sticks are of two kinds, solid square 
sticks and round and square sticks of wood to which emery 
paper or cloth is glued. Emery paper and cloth may be had 
from most material dealers, varying from 0000 to No. 4. 



EMERY WHEELS. 148 

EMERY WHEELS. Wheels of solid emery or 
wooden wheels, to the surface of which emery paste has been 
applied. The best wheels for watchmakers use are the solid 
wheels in which vulcanite is the cementing medium. They 
may be had from material dealers generally or from dental 
supply houses, in sizes varying from *4 X }& m * t° 3 l A x3 A m# 
A set of three or more of these wheels will prove very 
valuable adjuncts to the watchmakers bench for grinding 
dials to allow freedom of motion for wheels in fitting new 
dials; for grinding milling cutters, drills, gravers, etc. As 
purchased from dealers these wheels have a central hole, by 
means of which they can be mounted for use by the watch- 
maker as follows: 
Turn down a 
piece of No. 30, 
Stubs' steel wire, 
to the size of the 
opening in your 
wheel and rivit 
your wheel firmly 
upon it, as shown FlG 94 ' 

in Fig. 94. It can then be used in your lathe very handily, 
either with or without water. The best sizes for watchmakers 
use are y 2 in., 1 in. and \y 2 in. diameter. L. 

END STONE. The small stone disc on which a watch 
pivot rests, applied principally to escapement and balance 
pivots. Jewels with end stones are known as capped jewels. 

ENGINE TURNING. The wavy, curved lines used 
as decorations for watch cases. 

ENGRAVING BLOCK. A mechanical device for 
holding coins, jewelry, silverware, etc., while engraving. 
Fig. 95 is the usual form given to engraving blocks and is 
known as the flat base variety. Fig. 96 has what is known as 
the cannon-ball base, but the holding devices are similar to 
the flat base. Various attachments are furnished for holding 
rings, spoons, coins, etc. 




149 



EPICYCLOID. 



EPICYCLOID. A curve generated by a point in the 
circmf erence of a movable circle, as it rolls upon another circle. 
Webster. The teeth of driving wheels are usually of this 
form. 

EQUATION OF TIME. The difference between 
mean and apparent time. Webster 

ESCAPEMENT. The mechanical device in a watch 
or clock by which the motion of the train is controlled so that 
the power may be dispelled uniformly. Saunier divides 




Fig. 95. 



Fig. 96. 



escapements into three principal classes; Recoil, Dead Beat 
and Detached. I. Recoil escapements are so classed, because 
at a certain period of this action, the wheel moves backward 
or recoils in a manner more or less marked. The verge escape- 
ment in watches and certain forms of the anchor in clocks, 
may be used as examples. 

II. Dead Beat escapements are so called because except 
during the actual impulsion, the wheel remains stationery, a 
point being supported either against the axis of the balance 
itself, or against the accessory piece, concentric with this 



ESCAPE PINION. 150 

axis, which catches it in its movement of rotation. The 
cylinder and duplex escapements in watches and the pin and 
Graham escapements in clocks are examples of this class. 

III. Detached escapements may be called Dead Beat 
escapements, but their principal characteristic consists in the 
fact that the balance performs its vibration in absolute inde- 
pendence of the wheel, except during the very brief periods 
of impulse and unlocking. The wheel, then, does not rest on 
the axis of the balance, but on an intermediate and distinct 
piece. The lever escapement in watches, the detent escape- 
ment in chronometers, as well as several forms of escapements 
employed in clocks, come under this head. See Anchor, 
Chronometer, Cylinder, Dead Beat, Duplex, Graham, 
Pin Pallet, Pin Wheel and Verge. 

ESCAPE PINION. The pinion on the escape wheel 
staff. 

ESCAPING ARC. Twice the angular distance a pend- 
ulum has to be moved from its point of rest, in order to allow 
a tooth of the escape wheel to pass from one pallet to the 
other. Britten. 

EYE GLASS. Eye glasses for watchmaker's use are 
mounted in many different styles. Some have horn, others 
have vulcanite and still others cork mountings. The vulcanite 
mounted glass with a light spring attached to sustain it in place 
is very popular with apprentices. The Clark patent glass, 
shown in Fig. 97, is becoming very popular in 
this country. It is provided with an annular re- 
flector, with a central opening and corrugations, 
and so seated in the outer end of the glass as to 
reflect the rays of light falling on the outside of it 
b^ig. 97. in front of the glass, and concentrating them upon 
the object being viewed. It is especially useful in examining 
the inside of watches, as it often occurs that it is difficult to 
get light sufficient to do so. 

FERRULE. The small pulley or wheel around which 
the string of a bow is wound when giving motion to a piece 
of work. See also Collet. 




151 



FILES. 



FILES. Files for watchmakers use are made in every 
conceivable shape, and in sizes from that of a fine cambric 
needle to i x ^ in. The various styles are known as flat, 
pillar, joint, three-cornered, knife, round, half round, oval, 
square, smooth cut, barrette, warding, conical, slitting, pivot, 
ratchet, screwhead, escapement, etc. Escapement files are 
usually put up in sets of twelve assorted shapes as shown in 
Fig. 98, and are chiefly used by finishers in watch factories. 
The average American has a tendency to be extravagant, and 
in no trade or calling is this extravagance better exemplified 
than in that of the watchmaker and particularly in the matter 
of -files. Many watchmakers benches will be found, in the 
drawers of which, from one to two dozen files will be found, 
and out of all that number, not to exceed six will be in any- 
thing like respectable shape for good work. This is not occas- 
ioned by the poor quality of the goods used in this country, 
because eight out of every 
ten files used by watch- 
makers, are French, Swiss 
or English manufacture, and 
cost the American more 
money than his European 
brother, but rather from a 
careless handling of these 
tools, from a want of training. The skilled European watch- 
maker serves a long apprenticeship to a master who insists 
that he first becomes proficient in the use of the file, then the 
graver, etc., before he is allowed to work upon a clock or 
watch. In this way he acquires a proficiency in the use of 
tools which the average young American watchmaker is a 
stranger to. The American watchmaker will employ a new 
file upon steel work, whereas, the European first employes a 
new file in working brass or copper and even then handles it 
very carefully. He would no more think of using a new file 
upon steel work than he would of flying. A new file is care- 
fully used, and gradually advanced from a soft to a hard 
metal, will at the end of six months, be a much better file for 
steel work than a new one, and will last four times as long. 




FILING BLOCK. 



152 




When the surface of a file becomes choked with particals 
of steel, iron or brass, Saunier advises that it be cleaned as 
follows: Place the file for a few seconds in hot potash and 
water, and on withdrawal, dry it before the fire and brush 
the surface with a stiff brush. If the file has a tendancy to 
fill up, slightly oil the surface by means of a linen rag. 

FILING BLOCK. A contrivance made to take the 
place of the filing rest, which was made of boxwood or bone. 
It consists of a cylinder of hardened steel which revolves upon 

a staff which in 
turn enters a 
split socket. 
The surface of 
the steel cyl- 
inder is grooved 
Fig. 99. with v a r i o u s 

sizes of grooves for the different sizes of wire, or to suit any 
work, as shown in Fig. 99. The cylinder is revolved until the 
desired size groove is brought uppermost, when the split socket 
is placed between the jaws of a vise, and the vise closed, thus 
holding the cylinder in the desired position. Fig. 99 illus- 
trates Mr. Ide's patent block which is well made and of 
superior material. 

FILING FIXTURE OR REST. These rests will 
be found very convenient in squaring winding arbors, center 
squares, etc. There are several makes of these tools, but they 
are all built upon the same principle, that of 
two hardened steel rollers on which the file 
jjlfc rests, and Fig. 100 is a fair example. One pat- 

€3p tern is made to fit in the hand rest after the 

fl«=HS^B|| T is removed, while the other is attached to 
^illllPP^ the bed of the lathe in the same manner as the 
fig. 100. slide rest. The piece to be squared is held in 

the split or spring chuck in the lathe, and the index on the 
pulley is used to divide the square correctly. Any article can 
be filed to a perfect square, hexagon or octagon as may be 
desired. The arm carrying the rollers can be raised or 
lowered as required for adjustment to work of various sizes. 



t& 



153 FLUX. 

FLUX. A mixture or compound to promote the fusion of 
metals; used in assaying, refining and soldering, as alkalies, 
borax, etc. 

FLY OR FAN. A fan having two blades used for 
preserving the uniformity of motion, as in music boxes and 
the striking mechanism of clocks. The resistance of the air 
on the fan blades prevents the train from accelerating. 

FOLLOWER. Where two wheels are toothed together 
the one that imparts the power is known as the driver, and 
the one receiving the power is called the follower. 

FOOT WHEEL. In the selection of a foot wheel the 
workman must be governed by his own experience and taste, 
for like cigars the variety that 
exactly suits one person is very 
distasteful to another. Some 
workman prefer a treadle hav- 
ing a heel and toe motion, while 
others prefer a swing treadle 
like that shown in Fig. 101. 

FOURTH WHEEL. 

The wheel that imparts motion 
to the escape pinion, the second 
hand being attached to its staff. 

FRICTION. The resist- 
ance which a moving body 
meets with from the surface of 
the body on which it moves 
and is caused by the uneven- 
ness of the surfaces, combined 
with some other causes, such as 
natural attraction, magnetism, Fig. ioi. 

etc. It varies hs does the weight or pressure applied and is 
independent of surfaces in contact, but if the surfaces are dis- 
proportionate to the pressure, rapid abrasion will be the result, 
which in its turn produces uneven surfaces and tends to 
increa-e the friction. In order to prevent the abrasion of the 
ll 




FRICTION. 154 

surfaces a lubricant is applied, either in the shape of oil or 
plumbago, which spreading itself over the surfaces of the 
bodies interposes a film between the two acting surfaces, and 
this film, especially in light bodies, has a greater retarding 
influence than mere friction itself. In such cases the acting 
surfaces are made very minute, as in balance, staff-pivots, 
etc. In these pivots the resistance arising from the lubricant 
is usually greater than that of the friction proper, and it 
gradually increases as the lubricant become viscid. For this 
reason plumbago is advocated as a lubricant in large machines, 
as it does not become viscid and is an excellent lubricant. 
It is not applicable, however, for watch or clock work. 
From the above it is apparent that a light bodied or thin 
lubricant is desirable on small bearings, such as balance pivots, 
while as the barrel or power is approached and larger sur- 
faces used the lubricant should be of a heavier body, or 
thicker. The nearer that a revolving surface is to its center 
of motion the less the friction. It is therefore essential when 
extra surface is desired that the surfaces be increased in 
length, and that the diameter of a pivot be not increased 
for if the diameter be doubled the resistance is doubled, 
as the acting surface is twice the distance from the center 
of motion. 

FRICTIONAL ESCAPEMENTS. Those escape- 
ments in which the balance is never free or detached from the 
escapement. In contradistinction to the detached escapement, 
the duplex, cylinder or verge are examples of frictional 
escapements. 

FROSTING. The matted or rough surface sometimes 
given to work before gilding or silvering. See Electro- 
Plating, Bronzing and Staining. The gray surface pro- 
duced on steel work of watches is also known as frosting, 
though more commonly called graying. 

FULL PLATE. A term applied to movements having 
a full top plate and the balance above the plate. 



155 FUSEE. 

FUSEE. A brass cone, as shown in Fig. 102, having a 
spiral groove cut on it to hold the chain, and interposed 
between the barrel and the center pinion of a watch for the 
purpose of equalizing the pull of the mainspring and con- 
verting it into a constant pressure at the center pinion, for 
the pull of the mainspring is greater when wound around the 
barrel arbor than when it has expanded to the circumference 




Fig. 102. 

of the barrel. The principal of its construction is that by 
winding the fusee chain upon its cone the mainspring is 
wound, and the greatest pull comes upon the smaller end of 
the cone, and as the pull becomes less by the unwinding of 
the mainspring, the leverage (by means of the chain unwind- 
ing from a smaller to a larger cone) increases, and the rate of 
its increase constitutes a perfect adjustment of the mainspring. 
The fusee is held in great esteem by English watchmakers 
and possesses many excellent points, although not employed 
in any American made watch. 

Repairing Watch Fusee Top Pivot.* First file up 
and re-polish the square, taking off the corners sufficiently to 
prevent them standing above the pivot when it is re-polished. 
Put the square into an eccentric arbor and get the fusee quite 
true. Now put a screw ferrule on to the fusee back arbor, 
and place the whole piece in the turns with the eccentric in 
front, using the bow on the ferrule at back. If the pivot is 
much cut it should be turned slightly with the point of the 
graver. Polish first with steel and coarse stuff, afterwards 
with bell-metal and fine stuff, and finish with the glossing 
burnisher. 



*H. B. in Britten's Hand Book. 



GAS HEATER. 156 

To put in a Watch Fusee Top Hole.* Put the pillar 
plate in the mandril and peg the bottom hole true, then turn 
out the top hole to the required size for stopping. The stop- 
ping (a hollow one) should be small, and no longer than just 
sufficient to form the rivet. If there be danger of bending 
the plate, the stopping should be softened slightly (the ham- 
mering will re-harden it), and the ends turned hollow to 
facilitate the riveting. The top hole is now to be turned to 
nearly right size for the pivot, testing it frequently for truth 
with the peg, as much broaching is especially to be avoided. 
In finishing the stopping use polished cutters, take off the 
corners of the hole, and polish the cup or chamfer for the oil 
with peg and redstuff. The same procedure is to be followed 
with 3^ -plate fusee, and it will be found best to finish the. 
stopping in fusee piece before screwing the steel on to the 
brass. Be careful to give the fusee but little end shake; if it 
be at all excessive the stop work and the maintaining work 
will become uncertain, and either or both may fail. 

GAS HEATER. This heater, shown in Fig. 103, is to 
take the place of a forge in heating and tempering small 
articles. With a full pressure of gas, a piece of 
steel half an inch in diameter can be heated suffi- 
ciently to harden in about six minutes. It does 
not heat to a degree that will injure the quality of 
steel; which makes it very valuable for heating 
small pieces. Watchmakers will find in its use 
great convenience as well as economy of time and 
fuel; and also, that tools heated by it will be 
tougher than when heated in a forge in the usual 
way. 

Put on sufficient gas to prevent the flame from 
descending into the tube. For heating larger 
pieces the flame should be nearly three inches 
wide. The upper ends of the curved side pieces 
fig. 103. ^0^ not b e more than one quarter of an inch 
apart. The article to be heated should be held in the upper 



*H B. in Britten's Hand Book. 



157 GAUGE. 

part of the flame above the central blue part and parallel with 
it. The larger the piece to be heated the further it should 
extend into the flame. The heater should be located in a 
dark place, and supports may be provided for greater con- 
venience in heating heavy articles. 

GAUGE. An instrument for determining dimensions or 
capacity. The watchmaker cannot be too careful in the 
selection of his measuring instruments, as accuracy and 
perfection in watchmaking is an essential element to success. 
Accuracy is more essential than finish, though both are desir- 
able; still a movement that is accurate may be a fine time- 
keeper, although it may be lacking in finish and not artistic 
to look upon. Measuring instruments of all kinds should be 
handled with care, and in the more delicate ones cleanliness 
also plays an important part. You cannot expect accurate 
results from a fine Vernier caliper that is recklessly thrown 
into a heap of other tools upon the bench. It should be. care- 
fully handled, and when you are through using it you should 
carefully wipe it and place it in some drawer in your bench 
where it will not be mutilated by being jambed against other 
tools. 

Dennison's Standard. There are few tools so useful to 
practical watchmakers as the Dennison Standard Gauge, shown 




^iviWI¥lWTWFPTWITTWTnWT 

i e » . ^ i . < gVn it gi »t «i n i) ^ * ii n « >i mm a* a* n *t is tc ei *e 

. ojuuii umanrinn.ru~tf" innnnr -j~~ ltd-u u ^j—ir-L—jwiu ~u~ u~ u— u— 

Fig. 104. 

in Figs. 104 and 105. Aside from the mistakes it often enables 
the workman to avoid, it is useful, inasmuch as the habit of 
measurement once acquired, he will sel 



dom rely on guess. Nos. 1 and 3 are I U TTT'i.rjTl 
intended for measuring the width of main- LJ — l g '°" - — 



springs. It is very important to know IG ' IOS ' 

that a mainspring is of the right width, and also whether it is 

equal in its measurement. No. 2 is for diameters of pinions, 



GAUGE. 



158 



wire, etc. No. 4 is for diameters of wheels, 5 diameters of 

crystals, 6 verges, etc., and 7 is a steel thickness gauge, which 

fastened to the back and will measure the smallest pivot. 



Douzieme. A measuring tool having two limbs hinged 
together similar to a pair of scissors. One of the limbs 
terminates in a pointer that indicates upon a scale the extent 
to which the jaws are opened. The true Douzieme gauge 
has a scale divided into twelfths, though some patterns are 
now made that have 
a scale divided into 
tenths and hundreds 
of an inch, and again 
there are others that 
measure the fractions 
of a millimeter. This 
tool is useful for tak- 
ing measurements of 
all kinds. For exam- 
ple, we will suppose 
that the watchmaker 
is putting in a new 
balance staff; we will 
take it for granted 
that the upper part of 
the staff is entirely 
finished and that he is 
ready to find the total 
length that the staff 
should be. He takes 
the top plate with 
the balance cock and Fig. 106. 

potance attached, and measures the distance from the top 
of cock hole jewel to top of potance hole jewel by means of 
this gauge. He places the jaw a on potance jewel and b on 
cock jewel, and notes the number on the scale that the pointer 
is opposite, which is generally 30 for an 18 size full plate 
American movement. 




159 



GAUGE. 




Fig. 107. 



Micrometer Caliper. Fig. 107 is a full size cut of the 
Brown & Sharp Mfg. Co.'s micrometer caliper. It measures 
from one-thousandth of an inch to one-half inch. It is 
graduated to read to thousandths of an inch, but one-half and 
one-quarter thousandths are readily estimated. This instru- 
ment is also graduated to hundredths of a millimeter, but 
when so graduated the table of decimal equivalents is omitted. 
They are also made to read to ten-thousandths of an inch. 
The edges of the measuring surfaces are not beveled, but are 

left square, as it is 
more convenient 
for measuring 
certain classes of 
work. It will 
gauge under a shoulder, or meas- 
ure a small projection on a plain 
surface. Watchmakers will espe- 
cially appreciate micrometers of 
this form. This tool will be found 
very useful for gauging mainsprings, pinions, etc. In the 
caliper, shown by cut, the gauge or measuring screw is cut on 
the concealed part of the spindle C, and moves in the thread 
tapped in the hub A; the hollow sleeve or thimble D is 
attached to the spindle C, and covers and protects the gauge 
screw. By turning the thimble, the screw is drawn back and 
the caliper opened. 

The pitch of the screw is 40 to the inch. The graduation 
of the hub A, in a line parallel to the axis of the screw, is 40 
to the inch, and is figured o, 1, 2, etc., every fourth division. 
As the graduation conforms to the pitch of the screw, each 
division equals the longitudinal distance traversed by the screw 
in one complete rotation, and shows that the caliper has been 
opened i-40th or 0.25 of an inch. The beveled edge of the 
thimble D is graduated into 25 parts, and figured every fifth 
division o, 5, 10, 15, 20. Each division, when passing the 
line of graduation on Hub A, indicates that the screw has 
made i-25th of a turn, and the opening of the caliper increased 
1 -25th of 1 -40th, or a thousandth of an inch. 



GAUGE. 



160 



Hence, to read the caliper, multiply the number of divisions 
visible on the scale of the hub by 25, and add the number of 
divisions on the scale of the thimble, from zero to the line 
coincident with the line of graduations on hub. For example: 
as the caliper is set in the cut, there are three whole divisions 
visible on the hub. Multiplying this number by 25 and 
adding 5, the number of divisions registered on the scale of 
the thimble, the result is eighty-thousandths of an inch. 
(3x25=^75+5=80.) These calculations are readily made 
mentally. 



TABLES FOR USE IN CONNECTION WITH MICROMETER 
CALIPERS 



DIMENSIONS OF WIRE GAUGE SIZES 


IN DECIMAL 


PARTS OF 


AN INCH. 




c c 


C h 'n 






c c 




§ £> . 


oi 


rt cs 


* SP . 


c3 




cs rt 




bo 

3 
OS 


fc ° g o> 


...So 


bo 

3 

C3 


0* 


u. .a 
2 § * 


6 


<^ .£ u 
g gp 


O 


- £ £ bo 
1 S < § 


" j» .2 ctf 

•g c3 M ^> 


O 





£ s 5P 


u 


ce .5 cS 




S J~ „ 


g a u 2 


u 


03 

4> 


°* 0> 




°-jg 8 


s 




■*- 13 5 <u 

O c ^ 

« •= "E > 
n ;> 


8 -5 g 


5 

<*- 




«4-l 
O 

<u 

N 


l<o£ 


O 

0J 

N 


1 ""5 

u O g 


6 


55 .§ j- 


35-8 .eg 


0' 


c/3 


■8* 


55 


*> - * 

•O £ £ 


£ 








25 




u 




O 




c c 


c # c 




.S .5 




.£ .£ 




•*■" "~ 














0000 


.460 


.454 


19 




.03589 




.042 


000 


.40964 


.425 


20 




.03196 




.085 


00 


36480 


.380 


21 




.02846 




032 





.32486 


.340 


22 




.02535 




.028 


1 


.28930 


.300 


23 




.02257 




.025 


2 


.25763 


.284 


24 




.0201 




.022 


3 


.22942 


.259 


25 




0179 




.020 


4 


•20431 


.238 


26 




.01594 




.018 


5 


.1-194 


.220 


27 




.01419 




.016 


6 


.16202 


.203 


28 




.01264 




.014 


7 


.1442>5 


.180 


29 




.01126 




.0 3 


8 


.12849 


.165 


30 




.01002 




.012 


9 


.11443 


.148 


31 




.00893 




.010 


10 


.10189 


.134 


32 




.00795 




.009 


11 


.09074 


.120 


33 




.00708 




.008 


12 


.08081 


.109 


34 




.0063 




007 


13 


.07196 


.095 


35 




.00561 




.005 


14 


.06408 


.083 


36 




.005 




.004 


15 


.05707 


.072 


37 




.00445 






16 


.05082 


.065 


38 




.00396 






17 


.04525 


.058 


39 




.00353 






18 


.0403 


.049 


40 




.00314 







161 



GAUGE. 



DECIMALS EQUALING PARTS OF AN INCH. 



&=.0156 


H=-1718 


^ = .0312 


A=.1875 


A=.C468 


i| = .2031 


^ = .0625 


&=\2187 


£=.0781 


if =2343 


^=(937 


£=.2500 


^=.1093 


H=2656 


i =.1250 


^=. 2812 


&=.1406 


if = .2968 


3^=.1562 


t%= 3125 



Pinion and Wire Gauge. The jew- 
elers' gauge shown in Fig. ioS will be 
found very useful in measuring pinions, 






Fig. ioS. 

wire or flat metal. The 
slot is graduated to thou- 
sandths of an inch. If 
in measuring a pinion it 
passes down tale slot to 
number AO, then the 
pinion is tts^js of an inch 
in diameter. 



GAUGE. 



162 



Registering Gauge. The registering gauges shown in the 
illustrations are two of the best examples of this class of tools. 
They are manufactured by A. j. Logan, Waltham, Mass., 
and are very accurate and nicely finished. Fig. 109 is an 
upright and jaw gauge, and Fig. 1 10 is designated as a jaw and 




Fig. 1 10. 

depth gauge. They are both made to gauge one one-thou- 
sandth of a centimeter or one one-thousandth of an inch. 
Fig. 1 10 shows the piece of work marked A, being gauged, 
while B represents a stationary spindle to get the depth of a 
hole or recess or the thickness of any piece of work which 
will be indicated on the dial. 

Staff Gauge. The tool shown in Fig. m, the invention 
of Mr. E. Beeton, is designed for measuring the height of the 
balance staff from the balance seat to the end of the top pivot. 
The illustration is enlarged to give more distinctness. 

E E? is a piece of curved steel about 2V of an inch thick, 
and tV of an inch wide. On the lower side from E^ to the 
end the arm is filed down in width and thickness to correspond 
to an ordinary balance arm ; C is a slot in the upper arm JS, 
which allows A, B, Z>, A^ to be moved backward and 



163 



GAUGE. 




forward. D Z>' is a round brass post drilled and tapped; the 
part Z>' has a thread cut on it, and the part shown in the slot 
C fits with easy friction. B is a locknut, drilled and tapped 
to fit the thread on D\ It is for the purpose of clamping D 
Z>' against the arm E. A A is a small steel screw with 
milled head, and is made to fit the tapped hole in D D\ 

Mr. Beeton describes his method of 
using this tool as follows: Take your 
measurement of the distance, the bal- 
ance seat is to 
be fro??z the 
end of the top 
pivots as fol- 
lows: remove 
the end stone 
Fl& - lu - in balance 

cock, and screw the cock on the top plate, (18-size full plate 
movement) then taking the plate in your left hand, and tool 
(shown is Fig. m) in your right, place Hin position, so that 
the end of the screw A 1 rests on the jewel in the balance cock, 
and notice the position of the arm E y which corresponds to 
the balance arm, between the top plate and under side of bal- 
ance cock. If the distance between the arm JE? and end of 
screw A is too great, the arm E"* will be too low and touch 
the plate; if not enough, it will be too high and touch the 
regulator pins. Therefore, all that is necessary to do is to 
move the screw A A 1 up or down as the case may be, suffi- 
ciently to ensure that the arm E 1 will assume the position the 
arm of the balance is to have. Take an 18-size balance with 
oversprung hairspring, the arm is at the bottom of the rim, 
in that case, when measuring, the screw A is adjusted so as to 
bring the arm E? close to the plate, when A 1 is resting on the 
balance jewel; if the balance is old style with under sprung 
hair-spring, the balance arm is at top of rim, in which case A* 
is adjusted so that the arm E' is close to the balance cock; if 
the balance arm is in the center of the rim, as in some English 
and Swiss balances, the screw A* is adjusted so that the arm 
E* is midway beween the plate and cock. 



GAUGE. 1(J4 

The reason the part A, B, Z>, A\ is arranged to move 
laterally in slot C is, because all balance shoulders are not the 
same distance from the center, and where, in some cases, the 
screw A* would be in a line with the center of the staff when 
the arm E' was resting on the balance seat, in other cases it 
would reach past the center, of course, short of it; and, there- 
fore, it is made adjustable to suit all cases. 

Staff Length Gauge. Another form of staff gauge, 
which is very simple, and which any watchmaker can manu- 
facture is made as follows: Procure a small tube of steel, 
or make one from steel wire, thread it on the inside, and screw 
into each end a small steel plug as shown in Fig. 112, until the 
ends of the plug meet, cut off the outer end of plugs so as to 
leave the total length that of a short staff; harden, draw to a 
smmilmnmmmm ^^ m __ blue, place in a split chuck, plugs 

<!^ m^^^W^Wi ^>=. and all, and turn a pivot of good 

length on each plug. Flatten the 
FlG - II2< sides of the plugs at the base of the 

pivots, so that they may be readily turned in or out by the aid 
of tweezers. By inserting this tool in the place of the 
balance, and screwing the plugs to the right position, screw- 
ing bridge down, and adjusting until the right end-shake is 
obtained, you can ascertain in a moment the exact length that 
the staff should be over all, which can easily be transferred to* 
calipers and thence to the new staff. 

Staff or Cylinder Height Gauge. The obvious advan- 
tage of this tool, which is shown at Fig. 113, is the automatic 
transfer of the measurement so that it may be readily applied 
to the work in hand. The tool, as the illustration shows, 
consists of a brass tube terminating in a cone-shaped piece. 
To the bottom of this cone is attached a disc through which 
a needle plays. Around the upper end of the tube is a collar 
upon which is fixed a curved steel index finger. A similar 
jaw, which is free to move, works in a slot in the tube. The 
movable jaw is tapped and is propelled by a screw that ter- 
minates in the needle point. This tool is very useful in 



165 



GAUGE. 



making the necessary measurements required in putting in a 
staff. To use it in this work, set the pivot of the gauge 
through the foot hole, and upon the end-stone project the 
needle such a distance as you wish the shoulder to be formed 
above the point of the pivot. Next set 
the gauge in the foot hole as before, and 
elevate the disc to a height that shall be 
right for the roller, which is done by 
having the lever in place, the little disc 
showing exactly where the roller should 
come. Finish the staff up to that point, 
then take the next measurement from 
the end-stone to where the- shoulder 
should be, for the balance to rest upon. 
This point being marked, the staff can 
be reversed and measurements com- 
menced from the upper end-stone, by 
which to finish the upper end of the staff. 
Distances between the shoulders for pinions and arbors can be 
obtained with the same facility, a little practice being the 
only requisite. 

Twist Drill and Steel Wire Gange. This gauge 
which is shown in Fig. 114. will be found very useful in 





10 



OOOOOOOOOOO 



s"\ 



14 



15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 



OOOOOOOOOOO 

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 

OOOOOOOOOOOooo 

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 
O O O O O O o ooo o oooeoo 



25 r« 

O] 

41 si 

or/ 

■v 



60 



determ 
is very 



Fig. 114. 

ining the diameter of twist drills and steel wire, and 
accurately and nicely made. 



Vernier Caliper. Fig. 115 is an illustration of the 
Vernier Caliper, a light, convenient and valuable instrument 
for obtaining correct measurements. The side represented 



GAUGE. 



166 



in the illustration is graduated upon the bar to inches 
and fiftieths of an inch, and by the aid of a Vernier is read 
to thousandths of an inch, ( see description below). The 
opposite side is graduated to inches and sixty- fourths of an 
inch. The outside of the jaws are of suitable form for taking 
inside measurements, and when the jaws are closed, measure 
two hundred and fifty thousandths of an inch in diameter. 

These instruments can be furnished with millimetres, (in the 
place of sixty-fourths of an inch), and provided with a Ver- 
nier to read to one-fiftieth of a millimetre. 

On the bar of the instrument is a line of inches numbered 
1,2, 3, each inch being divided into tenths, and each tenth 
into five parts, making fifty divisions to one inch. Upon the 
sliding jaw is a line of divisions, (called a Vernier, from the 



iiiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiimIiimIiiiiIii 

Darling, Brown &Sharpe.Proradence. R.I. 




Fig. 115. 



inventor's name), of twenty parts, figured o, 5, 10, 15, 20. 
These twenty divisions on the Vernier correspond in extreme 
length with nineteen parts, or nineteen-fiftieths on the bar, 
consequently each division on the Vernier is smaller than 
each division on the bar, by one thousandth of an inch. If 
the sliding jaw of the caliper is pushed up to the other so that 
the line o on the Vernier corresponds with o on the bar, then 
the next two lines to the left will differ from each other one 
thousandth of an inch, and so the difference will continue to 
increase one thousandth of an inch for each division till they 
again correspond on the twentieth line on the Vernier. To 
read the distance the caliper may be open, commence by 
noticing how many inches, tenths and parts of tenths the zero 



167 GIMBALS. 

point on Jhe Vernier has been moved from the zero point on 
the bar. Then count upon theVernier the number of divisions 
until one is found which coincides with one on the bar, which 
will be the number of thousandths to be added to the distance 
read off on the bar. The best way of expressing the value 
of the divisions on the bar is to call the tenths one hundred 
thousandths (.100) and the fifths of tenths, or fiftieths, twenty 
thousandths (.020). Referring to the accompanying cut it 
will be seen that the jaws are open one tenth of an inch, 
which is equal to one hundred thousandths (.100). Suppose 
now, the sliding jaw was moved to the left, so that the first 
line on the Vernier would coincide with the next line on the 
bar, this would then make twenty thousandths (.020) more to 
be added to one hundred thousandths (.100), making the jaws 
then open one hundred and twenty thousandths (.120) of an 
inch. If but half the last described movement was made, the 
tenth line on the Venier would coincide with a line on the 
bar, and would then read, one hundred and ten thousandths 
(.110) of an inch. 

GILDING. (See Electro- Plating,) 

GIMBALS. A contrivance for securing free motion 
while in suspension of a ship's chronometer, compass, etc., so 
that it may not be affected by the motion of the ship. It is 
virtually a universal joint. It was invented by Cardan and 
first applied to timepieces by Huygens. 

GORING BARREL. A barrel having teeth around its 
circumference for driving the train. All American watches 
are of the goring barrel type. 

GORING FUSEE. A fusee having the maintaining 
power attachment. All modern fusees have a maintaining 
power which drives the train while the fusee is being wound. 
Examples of old fusees are, however, occasionally met with 
which have no maintaining power and the watch is stopped 
during the operation of winding. 



GOLD. 168 

GOLD ALLOYS. (See Alleys.) 

To Distinguish Genuine from Spurious Gold. Genu- 
ine gold dissolves in chlorine water and the solution has only 
a slightly yellowish color. Hence chlorine is a safe agent to 
distinguish genuine from spurious gold. To test the genuine- 
ness of gilt articles, rub a tiny drop of mercury on one corner 
of the surface to be examined; it will produce a white, silvery 
spot if the gold is pure, or if there is gold in the alloy. If 
this silvery spot does not appear there is no gold in the surface 
exposed. To prove the correctness of this result a drop of the 
solution of nitrate of mercury can be dropped on the surface, 
when a white spot will appear if the gold is counterfeit, while 
the surface will remain unaltered if the, gold is genuine. 
After the operation, heating the article slightly will volatize 
the mercury and the spots will disappear. Pure gold can be 
distinguished from its alloys by a drop of chloride of gold or 
of nitrate of silver. If the gold is pure there will be no stain, 
but if- mixed with other metals the chloride of gold will leave 
a brownish stain upon it and the nitrate of silver a gray stain. 
The simplest means of distinguishing genuine gold from a 
gold-like alloy consists in running the article to be tested 
against an ordinary flint until a lustrous metallic coloring 
remains upon the latter. Now hold a strongly sulphurated 
burning match against the coloring; if it disappears from the 
flint the article is not gold. Brannt. 

GOLD SPRING. A very thin spring made of gold 
attached to the detent of a chronometer escapement. See 
Chronometer Escapement. 

GRAHAM ESCAPEMENT. A dead beat escape- 
ment or one in which the escape wheel does not recoil. It 
was invented by George Graham early in the eighteenth 
century, and is used in regulators and fine clocks. For 
regulators and other clocks with seconds pendulum, says 
Britten, this escapement, which is shown in Fig. 116, is the 
one most generally approved. The only defect inherent in 
its construction is that the thickening of the oil on the pallet 



1M GRAHAM ESCAPEMENT. 

will affect the rate of the clock after it has been going some 
time. Notwithstanding this it has held its own against all 
other escapements on account of its simplicity and certainty 
of action. The pallets of the Graham escapement were 
formerly made to embrace fifteen teeth of the wheel, and 
until recently ten, but now many escapements are made as 
shown in the drawing, with the pallets embracing but eight. 
This reduces the length of the impulse plane and the length 
of run on the dead face for a given arc of vibration, and con- 
sequently the relative effect of the thickening of the oil. The 
angle of impulse is kept small for the same reason. There is 
not much gained by making the pallets embrace a less number 
of teeth than eight, for the shake in the pivot holes and 
inaccuracies of work cannot be reduced in the same ratio, and 
are therefore greater in proportion. This involves larger 
angles and more drop. It is purely a practical question, and 
has been decided by the adoption of eight teeth as a good 
mean for regulators and fine clocks where the shakes are 
small. For large clocks of a rougher character, ten teeth is a 
good number for the pallets to embrace. 

TO SET OUT THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Draw a circle representing the escape wheel to any con- 
venient size, and assuming the wheel to have 30 teeth and the 
pallets are to embrace eight of them, set off on each side of a 
centre line, by means of a protractor, 45 °. Lines drawn 
from the centre of the escape wheel through these points will 
pass through the centre of impulse faces of the pallets; thus, 
360 (number of degrees in the whole circle) divided by 30 
(proposed number of teeth) = 12, which is the number of 
degrees between one tooth and the next. Between 8 teeth 
there are seven such spaces and 12x7 = 84, and 84 + 6 (half 
of one space = 90), the number of degrees between the centres 
of the pallets. The proper position for the pallet staff centre 
will be indicated by the intersection of tangets to the wheel 
circle drawn from the centres of the pallets. But it happens 
that a tangent of 45°=the radius, and, therefore, the practical 
method adopted is to make the pallet arms from the staff 
12 



GRAHAM ESCAPEMENT. 170 

hole to the center of impulse face equal to the radius of the 
escape wheel. If we take the radius of wheel to be = i, it 
will be found that with the pallet arms this length, the height 
of the pallet staff hole from the centre of the wheel will be 
i .41, and the horizontal distance between the impulse faces of 
the pallets will be 1.41 also. 




Wheel 



Pallets. 



The width of each pallet is equal to half the distance be- 
tween one tooth and the next, less drop, which need not be 
much if the escape wheel teeth are made thin as they should 
be. The dead faces of the pallets are curves struck from the 



171 GRAHAM ESCAPEMENT. 

pallet staff hole. The escaping arc = two degrees, is divided 
into i^° of impulse and y 2 ° of rest; i^° of impulse is quite 
enough if the escapement is properly made, and if increased 
beyond 2°, it will be at the cost of the time keeping proper- 
ies of the clock from the effect of the thickening of the oil 
aready referred to. 

From the centre of the wheel set off two radial lines 
barely 3 on each side of the radial lines already drawn 
to mark the centre of the pallets. Then strike the curved 
dead faces of the pallets just touching the radial lines last 
drawn. 

Now from the pallet centre draw lines through the spot 
where the curved locking face of each pallet cuts the wheel 
circle. If you look at the engraving you will see that a 
wheel tooth is resting on the left-hand pallet. The amount 
of this rest is j^°, as already stated. Mark off this i^°, which 
gives the position of the locking corner of the pallet, and 
then set off another line 1 J^°, below it, which will mar.k the 
spot for the other corner of the pallet. On the right-hand 
pallet, the line already drawn marks the extreme corner, and 
it is only necessary, in order to get the locking corner, to set 
off a line i^° above it. 

The wheel teeth diverge from a radial line about io°, 
so that their tips only touch the dead faces of the pallets. 

For escaping over ten teeth, the distance between the centre 
of the wheel and the centre of the pallet staff should be equal 
to the diameter of the wheel; with this exception the pre- 
ceding directions are applicable for setting out. 

The wheel is of hard hammered brass, and for regulators 
is made from an inch and a half to two inches in diameter, 
and very light. The pallets are usually of steel, nicely fitted 
to the arbor, and, in addition, screwed to a collet thereon as 
shown. In the best clocks the acting faces are jeweled. 
Sometimes the pallet arms are cast of brass, and the pallets 
formed of solid jewels. Many good clockmakers put two 
banking pins in the plate, one on each side of the crutch, to 
prevent the pallets from being jammed into the wheel by 
careless handling. 



GRAVER. 



17-2 



The Graham escapement requires a heavy pendulum espe- 
cially if the train is comparatively rough. The clock weight 
must be sufficient to overcome increased resistance arising 
from inaccuracy of work; consequently, when the train runs 

freely, so much extra press- 
ure is thrown upon the dead 
faces of the pallets that 
a light pendulum has not 
enough energy to unlock, 
and the clock stops. For 
clocks with shorter than 
half-seconds pendulums the 
pallets are generally made 
"half dead," that is the 
rests, instead of being curves 
struck from the pallet staff 
hole, are formed so as to 
give a slight recoil to the 
wheel. 

Sfjf ; GRAVER. A steel cut- 
*" ■ ting tool used for engraving, 
turning, etc. The " Guar- 
anteed" engravers, shown in 
Fig. 117, are unique from 
the fact that they cut at both 
ends; the handle (which is 
patented) is so adapted that 
it will accommodate the re- 
verse end of innumerable 
size and shapes of gravers. 
The various angles of points of the 
gravers are very excellent and cover the 
entire field as used both for turning and 
engraving. 

Fig. 117. & fe 

Use of the Graver.* The beginner should first practice 
on hard wood, then brass, iron, steel and hardened and 
tempered steel, progressing from one material to the other as 




173 GRAVER. 

his ability warrants. He should turn for a long time with the 
point of a square or lozenge-shaped graver, the end of which 
is ground off on a slope; this is the only possible method of 
learning to turn true, and it enables the workman to acquire 
great delicacy of touch. Owing to carelessness or to the fact 
that when first beginning they were set to work on metal that 
was too hard or rough, most beginners turn with gravers that 
are ground to very blunt points; as the graver bites less they 
are obliged to apply a proportionately increased pressure, and 
only succeed in tearing the metal away, subjecting it to a kind 
of rolling action and rendering the hand heavy. If a pupil 
will not practice turning with the graver point so as to pre- 
serve it intact for some time, dependent on the nature of the 
metal, he will never be able to turn perfectly true. Irregular 
and sudden depressing of the graver point, or engaging it too 
deeply, causes its frequent rupture. f 

When sufficient experience has been gained in turning with 
the graver point and a trial is made with the cutting edge, do 
not attempt much at a time by pressing heavily, but take the 
metal sideways so as to remove a continuous thread, using all 
the points of the edge in succession. The metal will thus be 
removed as a thin ribbon or shaving. When the hand has 
had some experience, it will be found easy to remove long 
strips. 

Hardened steel that has been drawn down to a blue temper 
requires certain precautions. If the graver is found not to 
cut cleanly, it must at once be sharpened, and no attempt 
should be made to remove more metal by increasing the 
pressure of the hand, because the steel will burnish and become 
hard under a point or edge that is blunt, and the portions 
thus burnished are sometimes so hard as to resist the best 
gravers. The only way of attacking them is to begin at one 

* The directions apply to the use of the graver as a turning tool only. 
For directions for engraving on gold, silver, copper, etc., the reader is 
referred to an excellent work by G. F. Whelpley entitled " General 
Letter Engraving," price $1.25, Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co., Chicago. 

f See illustrations and directions for holding graver, under heading 
Making Balance Staff. 



GRAVIMETER. 174 

side with a fine graver point which must be sharpened fre- 
quently; at times it becomes necessary to temper the metal 
afresh before it will yield. It is well to moisten the point of 
the graver with turpentine. 

Apprentices and even watchmakers themselves are fre- 
quently careless as to the proper sharpening of their gravers, 
and think that they can hasten their work by the application 
of considerable pressure; in this way they sometimes produce 
bright spots that require several hours work before they can 
be removed. A majority of Swiss workmen turn indifferently 
with the right or left hand. This is a very useful accomplish- 
ment, easily acquired when young. 

GRAVIMETER. An instrument for ascertaining the 
specific gravity of liquid or solid bodies. 

GRAVITY. The tendancy which a body has towards 
the center of the earth. 

Specific Gravity. The ratio of the weight of a body to 
the weight of an equal volume of some other body taken as 
the standard or unit. This standard is usually water for 
solids and liquids, and air for gasses. Thus 19, the specific 
gravity of gold, signifies that gold is 19 times heaver than 
water. Webster. 

GRAVITY ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in 
which the train raises a lever a constant distance, and the 
weight of the lever when returning to position gives impulse 
to the pendulum. The double three-legged variety was 
invented by E. B. Denison in 1854. Gravity escapements 
are particularly applicable to turret clocks. 

GREAT WHEEL. The wheel on the fusee arbor 
which drives the center pinion. The largest wheel in a 
watch or clock. Britten. 

GUARD PIN. See Safety Pin. 

GYRATE. To revolve around a central point. See 
Center of Gyration. 






175 HAIR SPRING. 

HAIR SPRING. The spring that determines the time 
of vibration of the balance. The term hair spring is distinct- 
ively American, as all other nations use the more fitting 
appellation of Balance Spring. The different forms of hair 
springs are illustrated in Fig. i iS. The most common form is 
the volute or spiral spring, shown at A. B. is a helical spring 
used in chronometers. C. is a Breguet spring, which is a flat 
spiral with its outer end bent up above the plane of the body 
of the spring, and carried in a long curve towards the center, 
near which it is fixed. The advantage of the Breguet spring 
is that it 

distends jH JUk fi W Si 

when in 
action, on 
each side 

Of the Fig. 118. 

center, thus relieving the balance pivots of the side pressure 
which the ordinary flat spring tends to give, and it also offers 
opportunities of obtaining isochronism by varying the charac- 
ter of the curve. Glasgow says that a hair spring, of what- 
ever form, to be isochronous must satisfy the following 
conditions: its center of gravity must always be on the axis 
of the balance, and it must expand and contract in the vibra- 
tions concentrically with that axis. Immish contends that 
mere length of spring has nothing to do with isochronism. 
Mr. Glasgow contends that the whole question of isochron- 
ism resolves itself into the adoption of a spring of the correct 
length, and recommends for a lever watch fourteen turns if 
a flat, and twenty turns if a Breguet spring is used, if a cylin- 
der watch use from eight to twelve turns. He argues that if 
a spring is too short, the short vibrations will be fast and the 
long vibrations slow, and that all bending and manipulation 
of the spring with a view to obtain isochronism are really 
only attempts to alter the effective length of the spring. Mr. 
Britten contends that the position of the points of attachment 
of the inner and outer turns of a hair spring in relation to 
each other has an effect on the long and short vibrations 
quite apart from its length. For instance, a very different 



HAIR SPRING STUD INDEX 176 

performance may be obtained with two springs of precisely 
the same length and character in other respects, but pinned in 
so that one has exactly complete turns, and the other a little 
under or a little over complete turns. He argues that a short 
spring as a rule requires to be pinned in short or complete turns, 
and a long one beyond the complete turns. In duplex and 
other watches with frictional escapements, small arcs of vibra- 
tion and short springs, it will be found that the spring requires 
to be pinned in nearly half a turn short of complete turns. 

HAIR SPRING STUD INDEX. Wathier's Self- 
adjusting Hair Spring' Stud Index, shown in Fig. 1 19, is a very 
useful device, and by its use the watchmaker can save much 

time and can obtain better results 
than by following the regular 
methods of determining when a 
movement is in beat. Place the 
lower part of balance staff in 
round cleat A. Turn balance 
until ruby pin comes over oblong 
hole at B. Now let the balance 
down until roller table rests on 
steel center plate. The balance 
will then be ready for the spring. Place the hair spring on 
the staff, with the stud in exact line with the line on the index 
corresponding in name with the movement you wish to put 
in beat. Now fasten the hair spring collet on the staff, and 
you will find movement in beat. At a glance, "the watch- 
maker may be lead to believe that this tool is only applicable 
to the fourteen movements shown on the index, but in reality 
it serves for almost every movement that comes into the hands 
of the repairer. For example, the line marked E. Howard & 
Co., not only serves for that make of watches, but also for 
Waltham 14 and 16 sizes. Directions accompany each tool. 

HALF PLATE. A watch in which the top pivot of 
the fourth wheel pinion is carried in a cock, so as to allow of 
the use of a larger balance than could otherwise be used. 
Britten. 




177 



HALL MARKS. 



HALL MARK. The stamp placed upon articles of 
gold or silver after being assayed by government officials. 
The United States government does not employ hull marks, 
but articles can be assayed by the proper officers, -and a certifi- 
cate of their standard given upon payment of a small fee. 
The hall marking of watch-cases is not compulsory in Swit- 
zerland, unless they contain some stamp indicating their 
quality, and the English and other hall marks are recognized. 
In Great Britain, with few exceptions, the hall marking of 
jewelry is optional with the maunfacturer, but all gold or 
silver cases made in Great Britain and Ireland must be marked. 
The hall marks for Switzerland are shown in Fig. 120, 

Gold. Silver. 




iSk or .755. 



14k or .583. Sterling or .935 
Fig. 120. 



.Soo. 



Hall marks are not alone useful for determining the quality 
of goods, but are also a great aid in determining the age of 
watches, etc. The hall mark of Great Britain consists of 
several impressions in separate frames or shields; the quality 

mark, the office mark, which 




designates where it was stamped 
year mark, and if duty is charg- 
fig. mi. able, the head of the reigning 

sovereign. The standard or quality mark for London and 
Birmingham is, for gold, a crown, as shown in Fig. 121, and 
18 or some other figures to designate the carat. The standard 
mark for 22 carat gold prior to 1S45 was a lion passant, which 
is now used as the quality mark for sterling silver. The 
quality mark for 15k. gold is 15 or .625, for 12k. is 12 or .5 
and for 9k. is 9 or .375. The decimals indicate the propor- 
tions of pure gold of 24k. in the alloys. The office or location 
mark for London is a Leopard's head in a shield, as shown in 
Fig 121. The leopard's head was crowned prior to 1823. 



HALL MARKS. 



ITS 



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Fig. i22. 



L7U HANDS. 

Watch cases have been exempt of duty in Great Britain since 
1798, but all foreign cases are stamped, the die for silver being 
an octogon with the word foreign and for gold a cross. These 
dies also contain a mark to show where marked, that of Lon- 
don having a sun or full moon. 

In Great Britain, from 1697 to 1S23, the standard mark for 
silver was a lion's head, and the office mark a figure of 
Britannia, but from the latter date, to the present time, a lion 
passant and a leopard's head have been used. The date marks 
shown in Fig 122, will prove very valuable in fixing the dates 
of watches made in Great Britain as in most cases, the case 
was made at a date coinciding pretty closely with the manu- 
facture of the watch. 

HANDS. An index or pointer used in indicating minutes 
and hours on a watch, clock or similiar dial. The watch hand 

remover shown in Fig. 
123, is a very nice pat- 
FlG - 12 3- tern and can also be used 

as a roller remover and for several other purposes. The action 
of the tool can be readily understood by examining the illustra- 
tion. The threaded wire in the center extends through the 
entire tool and is raised or lowered by the milled nut at the 
end of handle. This tool can also be used for holding hands 
while broaching the hole or the tool shown in Fig. 124, and 

known as the nine- hole, 
sliding tongs and many 
other patterns, for sale 
by material dealers, may 
fig. 124. be used for the same pur- 

pose. Fig. 125, shows a second-hand holder, with hand in 
fj[H[|[^JS! f eBB ™^B 1fe ^S^l position ready to 

^ broach. This tool 

Fig. 125. can also be used as 

a screw head tool. In order to broach out a new hand, if the 
boss of the old hand has been preserved, place a small slip of 
cork upon the end of the broach and insert it in the old hand 
as far as it will go, and the new hand may then be broached 




HOUR GLASS. 180 

until the cork is reached before trying it for fit. The holes in 
hands may be closed by forcing them into a conical hole in a 
steel plate, first turning off the metal around the edge of the 
hole, so that it is left rather thin, or it may be contracted after 
reducing the edge, by means of the stake. 

HORIZONTAL ESCAPEMENT. (See Cylinder 
Escapement^) 

HOUR GLASS. An instrument for measuring the 
hours, consisting of a glass vessel having two cone-shaped 
compartments, from the uppermost of which a quantity of 
sand, water, or mercury occupies an hour in running through 
a small aperture into the lower. 

HOUR WHEEL. The wheel which turns on the can- 
non pinion and carries the hour hand. 

IDLER. An idle wheel. A wheel for transmitting 
motion from one wheel to another either by contact or by- 
means of belts as the wheel on a countershaft, or overhead 
fixture. An intermediate wheel used for reversing motion. 

IMPULSE PIN. The ruby pin of the lever escapement 
which entering the notch of the lever, unlocks the escape 
wheel and then receives impulse from the lever and passes out 
at the opposite side. 

INDEPENDENT SECONDS. A movement having 
a seconds hand that is driven by a separate train. 

INDEX. The small curved plate with divisions upon 
its face, over which the regulator arm passes. The circular 
plate at the back of a lathe head, having holes drilled 
around its margin for the reception of a pin, for dividing a 
wheel or other object placed in a chuck. Sometimes called a 
dividing plate. 

INERTIA. That property of matter by which it tends 
when in rest to remain so, or when set in motion to con- 
tinue so. 



181 INVOLUTE. 

INVOLUTE. The curve traced by the end of a string 
wound upon a roller, or unwouni from it. — Webster. This 
was a favorite shape for wheel teeth at one time, but was 
abandoned because it was found that the pressure on the 
pivot was increased by it, and it is now entirely superceded 
by the epicycloidal. 

ISOCHRONAL. Uniform in time; moving in equal 
time. When the long and short arcs of a balance are caused 
to be performed in the same time by means of a hair spring, 
that spring is said to be an isochronal one or isochronous. 
When the vibrations of a pendulum are all of the same dura- 
tion, no matter through what extent of arc the pendulum 
moves, the vibrations are isochronal. 

JACOT PIVOT LATHE. A Tool used but little in 
this country, the American lathe and its attchments having 
superceded it. It is used for reburnishing and dressing up 
pivots. 

JEWELING. The act of fitting in jewels for pivots to run 
in to diminish wear of the acting parts. Sapphires and rubies 
are used in the better class of work while in cheaper watches 




Fig. 126. Fig. 127. 

garnets are substituted. In escapement holes, where end- 
stones are used, as in Fig. 127, the jewel in a loose setting 
is fitted into a recessed hole, and upon it the end-stone, 
also set in metal, is laid, and the whole secured by two 
small screws. In cheaper movements the jewel is rubbed in 
as shown in Fig. 126.* 

* For full directions in regard to making and setting jewels the reader 
is referred to Watch and Chronometer Jeweling, published by Geo. K. 
Hazlitt & Co., Chicago, price 35 cts. 



JEWELING TOOL. lyy 

JEWELING AND STAKING TOOL. Hopkins 
patent jeweling and staking tool, shown in Fig. 128 is an in- 
genious device, and one that will be found very useful to the 
watch repairer. As the spindle, or handle, to which the cut- 
ters and burnishers P. P. P. are attached is sustained, in up- 
right position, when in use by the long bearings through, 
which it passes in the upright F, independently of the lower 
center, the hole to be cut may be centered either from below 
or above as preferred; and the depth to which it is desired a 
cutter shall work is regulated by adjustment of the sliding 
collar E, and this being a correct uprighting, as well as jewel- 
ing tool, with it a pivot hole, or a jewel setting the correct 
centre (upright) of which has been lost, may readily be cor- 
rected, or its true center again found, and, what in some cases 
would be a very desirable consideration, by a careful manipu- 
lation with the cutter, which is under perfect control of the 
operator, the position of jewel settings may be so changed so as 
to alter the depth of locking of the wheels to any desired ex- 
tent. To regulate the depth to which it is desired a cutter 
shall work below the surface of a plate, lower the spindle D 
till, when moved out sufficiently far, the end of the cutter will 
rest down on the top of the plate to be operated upon, and 
fasten it there by lightly tightening the screw K; this done, 
adjust and fasten the collar E on the spindle D to the same 
height above the top of the upright F as it is desired the cut- 
ter shall work below the surface of the plate on which it now 
rests. This, when the spindle D has been again set free by 
loosening the screw K, will of course allow the cutter to 
sink into the hole to be operated upon to the exact distance 
the collar E had been set above the top of F. In adjusting 
the collar E the graduated wedge, No. 4, or the jewel to be 
set, as preferred, may be used as a guage. The burnishers, 
No. 9, both for opening and closing settings, the same burn- 
isher, having chosen the one of proper size, is used for both 
purposes; the side being used for opening the setting, and the 
bevelled and rounded end for burnishing it down again over 
the jewel. The pieces 13 and 14 are made to fit in the lower 
end of the spindle D, (the cutter P having been removed,) 



183 



JEWELING TOOL. 



same as in an ordinary drill stock, and are used for burnishing 
the edges of a jewel setting down flat over the jewel counter- 
sinking screw heads, giving end shake to wheels, etc.; and 
being easily made, any one owning the tool can make these 
for himself, of forms and sizes to suit the particular work in 




Fig. 12S. 

hand. For uprighting purposes, withdraw the spindle D and 
substitute No. 5, the rings No. 3 being intended for laying 
the work on, on the tool bed. For upright drilling through 
watch plates, mark the place to be drilled, (prick punch it 
slightly) with the cone point of No. 5; which done, turn 
the spindle No. 5 upside down and rest the upper end of the 



JEWEL PIN SETTER. 184 

drill in the counter sink in its end, the drill being operated with 
a fiddle bow acting on a collet placed on its shank for the pur- 
pose. For cutting off bushings, level with a watch plate, 
either a cutter of the No. 13 or 14 class, or one of the P cut- 
ters can be used. For staking or riveting wheels upright on 
their pinions, lay the stake No. 7, level on the tool bed, (the 
center M having been fastened down out of the way), and 
with No. 5 center accurately the hole to be used in the stake, 
and fasten it there by means of the clamps N : then remove 
the cone end of No. 5, and place a punch with hole in its end 
of the required size, on the part m, and proceed as in an 
ordinary upright staking tool. 

JEWEL PIN SETTER. Fig. 129 illustrates the 
Logan patent. It is an excellent tool and will save the 
workman considerable time and much annoyance by its use. 




Fig. 129. 

Every watchmaker is aware what a difficult and tedious 
matter it is to set a jewel pin correctly. With this tool the 
job is accomplished quickly and accurately. 

JEWELING CALIPER REST. This tool will be 
found very useful for setting jewels in plates or settings, in 
counter-sinking for screw heads, opening wheels for pinions 
or bushings, turning barrel heads, etc. The sliding jaws of 
the calipers should be so adjusted that when the swinging 
part is brought back snugly against them, the front cutting 
edge of the cutter in the sliding spindle will exactly line with 
the center of the lathe spindle. Then if the calipers are at 
the right height, when a jewel or jewel setting is placed in 
the jaws of the caliper it will move the edge of the cutter 
outward from the lathe center just half the diameter of the 
jewel then in the caliper, and the cutting made at that distance 



185 



JEWEL PIN. 



from the center will exactly coincide with the size of the 
jewel to be set. If however, when set and worked as above, 
it is found that the hole cut is too large for the jewel, it will 
indicate that the calipers 
are too low down, and 
should be raised, provis- 
ion for which is made in 
the construction of the 
tool. If on the other 
hand, the cutting is found 
too small to fit, it will 
indicate that the calipers 
should be lowered. The 
final cutting for the jewel 
seat should be made 
by running the center 
straight inward from the 
face of the plate; the fig. 130. 

adjustable screw stop on the back end of the slicing spindle, 
serving to gauge the depth of the cutting. 




JEWEL PIN. To set a jewel pin in the table roller, (of 
American watches), correctly, is a difficult task. Where the 
jewel pin is broken off you will often save much valuable 

time by examining the 
broken part with your 
glass and noting the 
exact location of the pin 
before disturbing it. In 
some movements the 
jewel pin will be set 
as shown in Fig. 131, 
occupying about two- 
thirds of the hole in 
Fig. 133. other movement the pin 

will not occupy much over one half the space, as shown in 
Fig. 132. By using care in selecting a jewel pin of precisely 
the same size as the old one and in inserting it in the same 

13 




Fig. 131. 



Fig. 132. 



JOINT PUSHER. 18(5 

place, nine out of every ten movements will be found 
mechanically perfect and the balance have a good motion 
if the escapement is perfect. Most watchmakers remove 
the table roller from the balance staff, in case the 
jewel pin is loose. This you will find unnecessary if you 
will make the following described tool and use as directed. 
Take a piece of copper wire about half the thickness of a com- 
mon pin tongue and bend it as shown in Fig. 133, so it will be 
about one and one-eighth inch long. Cut or saw a groove in the 
inside of the ends, sufficiently deep to hold on to the table rol- 
ler, say one-fourth inch from the end. This can be easily 
bent to accommodate all sizes of tables. If you wish to 
soften the cement, to tighten, or replace a new jewel pin, it is 
only necessary to slip on the copper wire, and hold the 
extreme outer end in the flame of a small alcohol lamp, a few 
moments and sufficient heat will follow the copper wire to 
soften the cement. Care must be exercised to keep the pin 
in the proper position, and when sufficently heated, remove 
the wire quickly and allow the table to cool. By use of this 
little tool there is no need of removing the table roller, and 
absolutely no danger of injuring the finest expansion balance, 
as the tool need not, and must not touch the balance. The 
end of this tool is held in the flame by a pair of soldering 
tweezers. Always use shellac for cementing the jewel pin in 
the table roller. 

JOINT PUSHER. A small piece of tempered steel 
wire mounted in a wooden handle and used for inserting and 
removing joint pins. 

LACQUER. The ordinary lacquer of commerce is 
composed of spirits of wine and clear shellac in the propor- 
tion of 1 oz. of shellac to a pint of spirit. Heat should not be 
applied but the ingredeints placed in a glass stoppered bottle 
and shaken from time to time until the shellac is thoroughly 
dissolved or combined with the spirit. Various tints may 
be given lacquer by adding small quanties of aniline colors, 
previously well mixed with water and free from lumps. 



187 



LANTERN PINION. 



LANTERN PINION. A pinion formed of two cir- 
cular brass or other metal plates and connected by means of 
short steel wires. 

LAP. A disc used in conjunction with a lathe for polish- 
ing or cutting. Laps are made of steel, copper, ivory etc., 
and are charged with the cutting or polishing compounds. 
See Diamond Laps. 

LATHE. A mechanical device used for shaping articles 
by causing them to revolve while being brought into contact 
with cutting tools. Those who contemplate buying a lathe 
will do well to avoid the cheap imitations of the American 
pattern which are made by irresponsible makers in foreign 
countries, and fostered upon an unsuspecting public and 




Fig. 134. 

guaranteed true and " as good as the American." They are 
usually nicely finished, but inferior both in material and work- 
manship, their greatest failure being their untruth. If an 
untrue American lathe by any possibility is allowed to escape 
the inspector and finds its way upon the market, the manufac- 
turer is only too glad to exchange it for a perfect article, for his 



LATHE. 



188 



reputation is at stake, but who are you going back on in 
the event of one of these cheap imitations proving untrue? 
There are American made lathes upon the market that are as 
inferior in many respects as the imitations, and the watch- 
maker will do well to do without a lathe until such time as he 
can afford to purchase one of known reputation. Among 
the first class American lathes upon the market may be 
mentioned the Hopkins, manufactured by the Waltham 
Watch Tool Company, of Springfield, Mass., shown in 




Fig. 135. 

Fig. 134, the Webster -Whitcomb, manufactured by the 
American Watch Tool Company, Waltham, Mass., shown 
in Fig. 135, the Rivett, manufactured by the Faneuil Watch 
Tool Company, Faneuil, Mass., and the Moseley, manu- 
factured by Moseley & Company, Elgin, 111. An excellent 
lathe for the heavier work of watchmakers and jewelers, 
such as cannot be performed with satisfaction on the watch- 
maker's lathe, is manufactured by W. F. & John Barnes 
Company, Rockford, 111., and is known as their No. 4 lathe. 
Space forbids a full description of the American lathe and 
directions for performing the many operations for which it is 
intended, as a volume the size of this could be fully utilized if 
the subject were treated comprehensively; suffice it therefore, 
to say, that the quality of the work and the satisfaction which 
the lathe gives to its owner depends greatly upon the care 
which he bestows upon it. The lathe itself and its various 
attachments should be kept scrupulously clean, well oiled and 



189 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

as little exposed as needs be to dust. When not in use it 
should be kept under a glass shade, or covered with a cloth or 
chamois skin. Lathe attachments are described under their 
respective heads. 

LEVER ESCAPEMENT.* George Graham, the 
English horologist, invented the anchor deadbeat escapement 
used in clocks, and from it the lever, the favorite watch 
escapement of to-day is derived. In order to apply this latter 
escapement, (which only allows of very small arcs of vibration), 
to the watch, it was necessary, says Saunier, not only to alter 
its form but also to make the balance independent of the 
motive force, except during the actual period of lift. Thomas 
Mudge satisfied these requirements, by producing an escape- 
ment in which the two lifts were equal and an impulse was 
given at each vibration of the balance. 

Saunier and other authorities declare that when the modern 
lever escapement is well made in conformity with the prin- 
ciples of mechanics, and the pallets and pivot holes are pro- 
vided with jewels, it may be considered to be the best adapted 
for ordinary use. 

Britten declares that, " although inferior for time keeping 
to the chronometer, when made with ordinary care it is so 
certain in its action that it is generally preferred for pocket 
watches. Its weak point is the necessity of applying oil to 
the pallets. However close the rate of the watch at first, the 
thickening of the oil in the course of time will inevitably 
affect its going." 

The form of escapement presented in Fig. 138, is known as 
a right angle escapement. The straight line escapement, 
which is quite a favorite with Swiss and American watch- 
makers, is so called because the three centers of the wheel, 
the pallets and the balance are in a straight line. It is claimed 
that there is less friction and shake on the pivots in the 
straight line than in the right angle form, owing to the 

*The student will do well to read : The Detached Lever Escapement 
by Moritz Grossmann ; Modern Horology in Theory and Practice, by 
Claudius Saunier; Watch and Clock Making, by David Glasgow; The 
Watch and Clockmakers' Hand Book, by F. J. Britten. 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 190 

direction of the pressures neutralizing each other to some 
extent.* 

In America, Switzerland and France, the "clubbed" tooth 
is preferred for escape wheels, that is to say, a tooth similar 
to that shown in Fig. 136, made with the tip of the wheel 
formed into an inclined plane, thus dividing the impulse 
between the face of the pallets and the wheel teeth. Saunier 
in comparing the two forms of teeth says: "An escapement 
with pointed or ratchet teeth has the following objections and 
advantages: Both the pitch with the locking face and the 
drop are very nearly doubled ; there is therefore an appreci- 
able increase in the resistance opposed to unlocking, especially 
when the oil is at all thick. Out of the io° through which 
the pallet moves, a greater proportion is expended in the 
unlocking. Lastly the fine pointed tooth must be made of 
brass, it is liable to wear and distortion, and is ill-adapted for 
retaining oil, which must be applied in very small quantities. 
On the other hand its advantages consist in: 1. The pallets 
having double width, so that a greater quantity of oil is 
retained on them; 2. The escapement will go for a consider- 
able time after the oil has become bad or thickened. Some 
watchmakers indeed do not put any oil on either the teeth or 
pallets when the wheel is made of a particular kind of brass, 
but the point of the tooth wears in time; 3. The escapement 
is more easy of construction. When this form is adopted, the 
escapement can be made with sufficient accuracy by ordinary 
workmen; for if the planes are inclined to the requisite extent 
there will be no time lost in the lift. 

As compared with the ratchet toothed wheel, the wheel 
with clubbed teeth possess the following qualities: It retains 
the oil better; the friction accurs at two points of contact 
instead of one; the impulse commences with a shorter lever 
and is therefore, more efficient; no wear or distortion or 

* Saunier does not commit himself on this point; Glasgow and Britten 
both declare that there is no advantage in the straight line, though 
the former admits that it may be more handsome to look at, and the 
latter that it allows of the poising of the lever and pallets with less 
redundant metal. The principle reason why it is not made in England 
is that with the fuzee movements it is difficult to find room for it. 



191 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 



variation of the acting surfaces need be feared when the 
wheel is carefully made and of good material; it is possible, 
within certain limits, to reduce the pitch with the locking faces 
if necessary, and thus, while diminishing the effect of viscosity 
on these surfaces, to increase the real lift that corresponds to a 
given apparent lift. Lastly, the drop can be reduced to almost 
nothing. 

It is undoubtedly true that, as a set off against these advan- 
tages, it mav be objected that this escapement is of a highly 
scientific character, so that its construction is a matter of some 
delicacy, and requires the skilled hand of a first-rate workman. 
In conclusion, Saunier says, that the advantage is on the side 
of the clubbed tooth. 

Britten says that on the other hand, English watchmakers 
maintain that as at some time during each impulse the planes 
of the wheel and pallet 
nearly coincide, the 
increased surface then 
presented to the varying 
influence of the adhesion 
of the oil is a serious 
evil. Then with clubbed 
teeth, there is more 
difficulty in satisfactorily 
replacing a wheel than FlG - l $ 6 - 

with ratchet teeth, for in the former case the planes must be 
of exactly the same angle and of the same length in the new 
wheel as in the old one. With brass wheels the impulse faces 
on the wheel get cut into ruts, but the Swiss avoid this by 
using steel wheels, and also much reduce the extra adhesion 
due to increased surface by thinning the impulse planes of 
the teeth. Swiss escapements are as a rule commendably 
light, but the levers are disproportionately long. The 
Germans make an escapement in which the whole of the im- 
pulse plane is on the wheel teeth, the pallets being small round 
pins, as in Fig 137. Britten thinks this a cheaper and simpler 
form, but Saunier says of a similar escapement, which was 
proposed by Perron in 179S, that the simplicity is more 




LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 



192 



apparent than real, for it requires very great care in its con- 
struction, or otherwise its accuracy cannot be relied upon. 

Britten gives the following very concise description of the 
action and proportion of the escapement: 

ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

Fig. 138 shows the most usual form of the lever escapement, 
in which the pallets " scape " over three teeth of the wheel. 
A tooth of the escape wheel is at rest upon the locking face 
of the entering left-hand pallet. The impulse pin has just 
entered the notch of the lever, and is about to unlock the 
pallet. The action of the escapement is as follows: The 
balance, which is attached to the same staff as the roller, is 
traveling in the direction indicated by the arrow which is 
around the roller, with sufficient energy to cause the ruby 
pin to move the lever and pallets far enough to release the 
wheel tooth from the locking face, and allow it to enter on 

the impulse face of the 
pallet. Directly it is at 
liberty, the escape wheel, 
actuated by the mainspring 
of the watch, moves around 
the same way as the arrow 
and pushes the pallet out of 
its path. By the time the 
FlG - *37. wheel tooth has got to the 

end of the impulse face of the pallet, its motion is arrested by 
the exit or right-hand pallet, the locking face of which has 
been brought into position to receive another tooth of the 
wheel. When the pallet was pushed aside by the wheel 
tooth it carried with it the lever, which in its turn communi- 
cated a sufficient blow to the ruby pin to send the balance 
with renewed energy on its vibration. So that the ruby 
pin has the double office of unlocking the pallets by giving a 
blow on one side of the notch of the lever, and of immediately 
receiving a blow from the opposite side of the notch. The 
balance proceeds on its excursion, winding up as it goes the 
balance spring, until its energy is expended. After it is 




193 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

brought to a state of rest its motion is reversed by the uncoil- 
ing of the balance spring, the ruby pin again enters the 
notch of the lever, but from the opposite direction, and the 
operation already described is repeated. The object of the 
safety pin is to prevent the wheel from being unlocked 
except when the ruby pin is in the notch of the lever. 
The banking pins keep the motion of the lever within the 
desired limits. They should be placed as shown, where any 
blow from the ruby pin on to the outside of the lever is 
received direct. They are sometimes placed at the tail of the 
lever, but in that position the banking pins receive the blow 
through the pallet staff pivots, which are liable to be broken 
in consequence. 

PROPORTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

The escape wheel has fifteen teeth, and the distance apart 
of the pallets, from centre to centre, is equal to 6o° of the 
circumference of the wheel. The pallets are planted as close 
as possible to the wheel, so that the teeth of the wheel in 
passing just clear the belly of the pallets. When the tooth 
is pressing on the locking, the line of pressure should pass 
through the centre of the pallet staff. But as the locking 
faces of the two pallets are not equidistant from the centre of 
motion, a tangent drawn from the locking corner of one 
pallet would be wrong for the other, and, as a matter of fact, 
if a diagram is made it will be found that even when the 
pallets are planted as close as possible they are hardly as 
close as they should be for the right-hand pallet. To plant 
as close as possible is, therefore, a very good rule, and is the 
one adopted by the best pallet makers; though in setting out 
the escapement a chord of the width of the pallet is produced 
to find the centre of the staff, as shown in Fig. 140. The width 
of each pallet is made as nearly as possible half the distance 
between one tooth of the escape wheel and the next. As the 
teeth of the wheel must be of an appreciable thickness, and 
the various pivots must have shake, it is not found practicable 
to get the pallets of greater width than io° of the circumfer- 
ence of the wheel instead of 1 2 °, which would be half the 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 194 

distance between one tooth and the next. This difference 
between the theoretical and actual width of the pallet is 
called the drop. The lever is pinned to the pallets, and has 
the same centre of motion. The distance between the centre 
of the lever and the centre of the roller is not absolute. The 
distance generally preferred is a chord of 96 of a circle repre- 
senting the path of the tips of the escape wheel teeth, that is, 
the distance from the tip of one tooth to the tip of the fourth 
succeeding tooth. The proportion, as it is called, of the lever 
and roller is usually from 3 to 1 to 3^ to 1. In the former 
case the length of the lever (measured from the centre of 
pallet staff to centre of the mouth of the notch,) is three times 
the distance of the centre of the impulse pin from the centre 
of the roller, and in the latter case 3^ times. The portion of 
the lever to the left of the pallet staff hole acts as a counter- 
poise, and should really have the metal in it disposed at as 
nearly as possible the same distance from the centre as that in 
the other end of the lever, though this is rarely the case. 

In this form of the lever escapement the pallets have not 
less than io° of motion. Of this amount, 2 are used for 
locking, and the remainder for impulse. The amount of lock- 
ing is to some extent dependent on the size of the escapement. 
With a large escapement less than i^° would suffice, while 
a small one would require rather more than 2° The quality 
of the work, too, is an element in deciding the amount of 
locking. The lighter the locking the better, but it must 
receive every tooth of the wheel safely, and where all the 
parts are made with care the escapement can be made with 
a very light locking. 

Presuming that the staff hole is correctly drilled with 
relation to the planes, a rough rule used for testing io° pallets 
is that a straight edge laid on the plane of the entering pallet 
should point to the locking corner of the exit pallet, as 
indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 139. But this is clearly only 
an approximation, for any variation in the amount allowed 
for locking alters the direction of the planes. 

When from setting the hands of a watch back, or from a 
sudden jerk, there is a tendency for the pallets to unlock, the 



195 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 



English Lever Escapement. 




£2 CU 



W QJ 3 

|fc{S*£ C0L, 



5 > s too 22 y & -q ^c>-3 

ce(U«C"rO£cS--eScsOcr 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 196 

safety pin butts against the edge of the roller. It will be 
observed that when the ruby pin unlocks the pallets, the 
safety pin is allowed to pass the roller by means of the 
crescent which is cut out of the roller opposite the ruby pin. 
The teeth of the escape wheel 

make a considerable angle with ~~ ~""" — - - 

a radial line (24 ), so that their _© 7 J 

tips only touch the locking V V~~ \ / 

faces of the pallets. The lock- ^ — * *"~" >/ 

ing faces of the pallets, instead FlG - J 39- 

of being curves struck from the centre of motion of the 
pallets, as would be otherwise the case, are cut back at an 
angle so as to interlock with the wheel teeth. The locking 
face forms an angle of 6° or 8° with a tangent to a circle 
representing the path of the locking corner. This is done 
so that the safety pin shall not drag on the edge of the roller, 
but be drawn back till the lever touches 'the banking pin. 
When the operation of setting the hands back is finished, or 
the other cause of disturbance removed, the pressure of the 
wheel tooth on the locking face of the pallet draws the pallet 
into the wheel as far as the banking pin will allow. The 
amount of this " run " should not be more than sufficient to 
give proper clearance between the safety pin and the roller, 
for the more the run, the greater is the resistance to unlock- 
ing. This rule is sometimes sadly transgressed, and occa- 
sionally the locking is found to be, from excessive run, almost 
equal in extent to the impulse. It will generally be found 
that in these cases the escapement is so badly proportioned 
that the extra run has had to be given to secure a sound safety 
action. In common watches the safety action is a frequent 
source of trouble. The more the path of the safety pin in- 
tersects the edge of the roller, the sounder is the safety 
action, and if the intersection is small the safety pin is likely 
to jamb against the edge of the roller, or even to pass it 
altogether. With an ordinary single roller escapement a 
sound safety action cannot be obtained with a less balance 
arc than 33 ; io° pallets with one degree of movement 
added for run, and with a lever and roller of 3 to 1, give a 



197 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

balance arc of 33 — that is to say, the balance in its vibration 
is freed from the escapement except during 33 , when the 
impulse pin is in contact with the lever. Even with a balance 
arc of 33 the roller must be kept small in the following 
way to ensure soundness of the safety action. The hole for 
the ruby pin must not be left round. After it is drilled, a 
punch of the same shape as the ruby pin — that is, with one- 
third of its diameter flattened off — should be inserted, and the 
edge of the roller, where the crescent is to be formed, beaten 
in. By this means the roller can be turned down small 
enough to get a sufficient intersection for the safety pin. 

It is useful in estimating the balance arc of a watch, to re- 
member if it has a three-armed balance that 30 is one-fourth 
of the distance between two arms. With a compensation 
balance a third of the distance between two of the quarter 
screws is 30 . 

A round ruby pin, although it is sometimes used in com- 
mon watches, gives a bad action and necessitates a very large 
balance arc. 

Fig. 140 is appended as a guide to students in setting out the 
escapement. A circle representing the extreme diameter of 
the escape wheel is taken as a basis, and on the left of the 
centre line is set off, by means of a protractor, the middle of 
one pallet (30 ) and 'its width (io°). The chord of this arc 
of io° is then produced till it cuts the centre line, and this in- 
tersection is taken as the centre of the pallet staff. From the 
pallet-staff centre curves, A and B, (representing the paths of 
the pallet corners,) are drawn. The amount of locking C 
(say 2 ) and impulse D (say 9 ) are set off from the chord of 
the left-hand pallet. The impulse plane is traced through 
the intersection of the angular lines with the curves A and 
B, and the line of the plane produced toward the centre of 
the staff as shown. From the centre of the staff is described 
a circle just touching the line so produced. The impulse 
plane of the other pallet forms a tangent to this circle. In 
this position of the pallets, a line drawn from the locking 
corner of the left-hand pallet to form an angle of 12 with 
the radial line from the centre of the wheel, will be required 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 



198 



* -<. . 




199 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

to show the locking face of the pallet, and a similar line form- 
ing 3 will answer for the locking face of the right-hand 
pallet. Mark off the centre of the roller (E), and take, say, 
one-fourth of the distance between this centre and the centre 
of the pallet staff for the position of the centre of the impulse 
pin, and describe the arc F to represent its path. The line 
G, forming with the centre line running through the roller 
an angle equal to half the total angle of the motion of the 
pallets, or 5^,° will represent the centre of the lever. The 
wheel teeth are set back about 24 from a radial line, so as to 
bear on their points only, and the rim of the wheel extends to 
about three-fourths of the whole radius. The remaining 
parts may be readily filled in from the foregoing remarks on 
the proportion of the escapement, and a study of Fig. 138. 

DOUBLE ROLLER ESCAPEMENT. THE HORN OF THE LEVER. 

Low-angled pallets, says Britten, (i. e. pallets having but little 
motion), and small balance arcs are preferred for fine watches; 
the low-angle pallets as being less affected by changes in the 
condition of the oil w T hich is used to lubricate the faces of 
the pallets than when the motion is greater, and the small bal- 
ance arc because it allows the balance to be more perfectly 
detached from the escapement. With a double roller escape- 
ment, pallets with from 8° to 9 of motion are generally 
used, with a lever and roller to give a balance arc of from 
28 to 32 . With low-angled pallets, and less than 30 of 
balance arc, a different arrangement than the usual upright 
pin in the lever must be made for the safety action. A second 
roller, not much more than one-half the diameter of the one 
in which the impulse pin is fixed, is mounted on the balance 
staff for the purpose, and a small gold finger, projecting far 
enough to reach the edge of the smaller roller, is screwed to 
the lever. The safety roller should not be less than half the 
diameter of the impulse roller, for the smaller the safety roller, 
the farther the safety finger enters the crescent before the 
ruby pin enters the notch of the lever; and, as directly the 
safety finger enters the crescent, the impulse pin must be 
within the horn of the lever, the smaller the safety roller, the 




LEVER ESCAPEMENT. ^00 

longer must be the horn. Then, if the horns are excessively 
long, the extent of the free vibration of the balance is cur- 
tailed, because the ruby pin touches the outside of the lever 
sooner. It will be seen that in the single roller escapement 
(Fig. 141) the safety pin does not enter the crescent before the 
ruby pin enters the notch, and, therefore, in the single roller 
escapement the lever really requires but the smallest possible 

amount of horn. Fig. 
141 shows the double 
roller arrangement. 
Here it will be seen 
that the safety finger 

V C^f^' 1 ^---^ ^"^^ / / enters tne crescent 

some time before the 
ruby pin gets to 
the notch. During 
this interval, should 

Fig. 141. , , , j r - i 

the hands of the 
watch be set back, the pallets could not trip, for the horn 
of the lever would be caught on the ruby pin. I have 
tried to explain this fully, because double roller escapements 
occasionally fail to give satisfaction owing to the lever having 
insufficient horn. On the other hand, the levers of single 
roller escapements, where scarcely any horn is required, are 
often made with very long ones. 

Besides getting a sound safety action with small balance 
arc, the double roller has three other advantages. (1) The 
impulse is given more nearly on the line of centres, and con- 
sequently with less engaging friction. (2) The safety roller 
being of a lesser diameter, the safety finger when in contact 
with it offers less resistance to the motion of the balance; 
and (3) the requisite amount of shake between the safety 
roller and banking pins is obtained with less run on the 
pallets. Double roller escapements are sometimes seen with 
pallets having io° of motion, and even more, and with the 
safety roller nearly as large as the impulse one. An es- 
capement made in this way really appears to lose most of the 
advantages of the extra roller. On the other hand, low-angle 



201 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

pallets are sometimes used with a long lever to get increased 
balance arc. This also is objectionable, for the pallets must 
have more draw to pull the longer lever up to the banking, 
and more draw means harder unlocking. It is really only to 
watches of a high character throughout that double roller 
escapements with low angle pallets and small balance arcs 
should be applied. For the ordinary run of work, the single 
roller escapement with n° pallets and a balance arc of from 
36 to 40 is well suited. 

SIZE OF THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

Lever escapements are classed by the trade, says Britten, 
into the following sizes: 

No. o in which the escape wheel is .185 of an inch in diameter. 

1 " " " " .205 " " " 

2 " " " " .225 " " " 

^ « « u u 2^5 " " " 

6 " u u " .265 " " " 

S « « « « .285 " 

10 " " " " .295 " 

12 " " " " .305 " " <« 

No. 1 is the smallest and No. 10 the largest size used in the 
ordinary run of work. The practice of J. F. Cole was to 
have the escape wheel three-sevenths of the diameter of the 
balance, but there is no strict rule for the size of an escape- 
ment to a watch, though there has. been a disposition of late 
years to use smaller escapements than formerly, as they are 
found to yield better results. In course of time a ridge is 
formed at the beginning of the impulse planes of the pallets, 
where the wheel teeth fall. This ridge is more marked and 
farther along the impulse plane when there is much drop and 
the escape wheel is large and heavy, because the inertia of 
the wheel, which increases in proportion to its weight and the 
square of its diameter, is so great that the balance after un- 
locking the pallets carries them farther before the wheel 
acquires sufficient velocity to overtake them. Undue shake 
of the ruby pin in the notch will also cause this ridge to be 
accentuated. The practice of some of the best London 
makers is, for 6 and S sized movements, No. 2 escapement; 

14 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 202 

for 10 and 12 sized movements, No. 4 escapement; for 14 and 
16 sized movements, No. 6 escapement; and for 18 and 20 
sized movements, No. 8 escapement. Many manufacturers 
confine themselves to two sizes, " two's " for repeaters and 
ladies, and " sixes " for gentlemen's watches. A Coventry 
watch will be found usually to have a larger escapement than 
a London watch of the same size. 

The escape wheel is of hard, well-hammered brass; the 
pallets are of steel (the practice of rolling the pallet steel to 
harden it is not a good one, as there is danger of magnetizing 
it in the operation), wider than the wheel, with the acting 
parts of ruby in the best, and garnet in the commoner escape- 
ments. The pallets are slit longitudinally, and the stones 
fixed in with shellac. The Swiss generally insert the 
stones across the pallets, so that they are visible. The 
impulse planes are curved so as to present a smaller sur- 
face to the wheel. The ruby, pin is fixed in the roller with 
shellac; the safety pin of gold, and the banking pins of brass. 
Non-magnetizable watches have the lever and pallets of some 
other metal than steel, generally aluminium bronze. 

In a good lever escapement all the moving parts are ex- 
tremely light. 

In making a new lever it is well to start with it full long, 
because a deep notch is much easier to polish than a shallow 
one. When the notch is finished the horns can be filed off as 
required. 

TWO PIN ESCAPEMENT. 

As Britten has pointed out in the action of the escapement, 
the ruby pin performs the double office of unlocking the 
pallets by giving a blow on one side of the notch of the 
lever, and of immediately receiving a blow from the opposite 
side of the notch. George Savage, of London, saw there 
was a loss of power consequent on this double duty, and 
also in the unlocking action taking place before the line 
of centers of the lever and roller, and with a view to avoid 
this, introduced the escapement shown in Fig. 142. He 
reversed the order of things by cutting a small notch in the 
roller, and placing a pin in the lever, in lieu of the ruby 



203 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT 



pin in the roller, which also answered the purpose of the 
guard pin. To effect the unlocking, he placed two small pins 
in the roller in such positions that one of them begins to 
unlock just before crossing the line of centers. By the time 




Fig. 142. 

the unlocking is finished, the pin in the lever is drawn 
into the notch and gives the first portion of the impulse. 
It then leaves the notch, and the impulse is completed by 
the horns of the lever striking the second small pin in the 
roller, which has nearly or quite reached the line of centers 
by this time. 

In order to get the safety pin well into the notch, says 
Britten, this escapement requires pallets having 12 to 15 
of motion, which is objectionable, and the lever and roller 
action is besides a very delicate job, and fails if not thoroughly 
done; so that, although the idea is taking, this form of the 
escapement has never come much into use, and when it is 
made one wide stone is generally substituted for the two pins 
in the roller. 

The unlocking nearer the line of centers is also accomplished 
in what is called the anchor or dovetail escapement, in which 
the ruby pin is wider than usual, and of a dovetail form. 
It is open to the objection that, on account of the increased 
width of the impulse stone and of the lever, banking will 
occur with a smaller vibration of the balance than with the 
usual form. 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 204 

RESILIENT ESCAPEMENTS. 

A watch balance in general use, says Britten, rarely vibrates 
more than a turn and a half, that is, three-quarters of a turn 
each way; yet occasionally, from pressing on the key after the 
watch is wound in going-barrel work, sudden movements of 
the wearer, or other cause of disturbance, the balance will 
swing round till the impulse pin knocks the outside of the 
lever. If this banking is violent, the timekeeping of the 
watch is deranged, and a broken pivot may also result if the 
pivots are small. To obviate the evil of such banking, various 
plans have been tried. The most usual is to make the banking 
pins yield to undue pressure, and allow the ruby pin to pass 
the lever, the wings of which are omitted. Mr. J. F. Cole 
devised a resilient escapement without any banking pins, in 
which the teeth of the escape wheel were so formed as to 
resist the entrance of the pallet into the wheel more than was 
required for ordinary locking. In the event of overbanking T 
the pallet compelled the escape wheel to recoil, so that the 
mainspring was really utilized as a spring banking. But in 
the use of any of these resilient arrangements there is a danger 
of " setting." When the banking is so violent that the 
ruby pin drives the lever before it, all is well, but it is 
sure to happen sometimes that just as the ruby pin is 
passing the lever its motion is exhausted, and it jambs against 
the point of the lever and stops the watch. In a recent 
arrangement Mr. Schoof claims to have overcome this tend- 
ency to set by using very weak spring bankings. Another 
objection to spring bankings is that in their recoil they 
are likely to drive the safety pin against the edge of the 
roller. 

PALLETS WITH EQUIDISTANT LOCKINGS. 

The drawing Fig. 138, shows the pallets at an equal distance 
from their centre of motion, and they are generally made so. 
But then, although the impulse planes are equal, the locking 
faces are not the same distance from the centre, and the lock- 
ing resistance is therefore unequal. Pallets are occasionally 
made having the lockings equidistant. Although advocated 



205 LEVER ESCAPEMENT 

by Grossman and other authorities, they are but seldom used. 
The action of the wheel tooth on the impulse plane of the 
entering pallet before the line of centres is an engaging action, 
and on the exit pallet after the line of centres a disengaging 
action. The friction is therefore greater on the entering 
pallet, and when an escapement sets on one impulse face, it 
is in nine cases out of ten the impulse face, of the entering 
pallet. From this it is argued by some that if either pallet 
should be placed further from the centre of motion it should 
not be the exit, but the entering pallet, so as to give it a more 
favorable leverage wherewith to encounter the greater 
friction which undoubtedly exists. But there is really no 
advantage in the longer arm, for it has to be pushed through 
a greater distance by the wheel tooth than the shorter one. 
Arrange the length of the pallet arms how you will, you get 
but the force of the wheel passing through half the distance 
between two teeth. As far as the relative adhesion of the oil 
goes, the advantage is with the shorter arm. But the chief 
objection to the equidistant lockings is that with them the 
leaving corner of the exit pallet dips further into the wheel 
than with circular pallets, thereby requiring more drop to give 
the requisite freedom. Britten gives the following hints on 
the 

EXAMINATION OF THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

See that the balance staff is perfectly upright. See that the 
wheel is perfectly true on edge and on face, and that the teeth 
are equally divided and smooth; also by gently turning the 
wheel backwards, see that the pallets free the backs of the 
teeth. If the wheel is out of truth, it must be set up in the 
lathe and re-bored. It can be fixed either with shellac or in a 
brass sink bored out the exact size to receive it. If the divis- 
ions are unequal, or the wheel has some thick teeth, it should 
be discarded. It is useless to attempt to make the wheel right, 
and to reduce the corners of the pallet to free the wheel is 
simply to spoil the escapement for the sake of the wheel. At 
the same time, it must be left to the operator to judge 
whether the amount of the inaccuracy is serious. The whole 
affair is so minute that no rule can be given. 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 206 

Is the wheel the right size ? If the lockings are too light, 
and the greater part of the shake inside, the wheel is too 
small, and should be replaced by one larger. Before remov- 
ing the wheel, gently draw the balance around until the point 
of the tooth is exactly on the locking corner, and see if there is 
sufficient shake. If not, it will be prudent to have the new 
wheel with the teeth a little straighter than the old ones. If 
the lockings are too deep and most of the drop outside, the 
wheel is too large and should be topped.* 

The wheel is so fragile that care is required in topping,, 
which is done by revolving it in the turns against a diamond 
or sapphire file. A brass collet is broached to fit friction-tight 
on one of the runners of a depth tool; one side of this collet 
is then filed away, leaving sufficient substance to avoid burst- 
ing into the hole. On this flat a small piece of sapphire file 
is attached with shellac, taking care that the face of the file is 
parallel to the centre of the runner. The escape wheel on 
its pinion with a ferrule attached is placed in the centres of the 
depth tool further from the adjusting screw, and the collet 
and file on one of the opposite centres, and that centre fixed 
firmly by its clamping screw. A very light hair bow is used 
to rotate the pinion, and the depth tool laid on its side on the 
work board — the tool being closed by its screw until the 
teeth of the wheel nearly touch the surface of the file; now 
if a slight pressure is made by the fingers on the uppermost 
limb of the tool, at the same time rotating the wheel by the 
bow, the spring of the tool will allow the teeth to be brought 
into contact very slightly and without fear of bending the 
teeth; the wheel can be reduced as much as is necessary. 

If the wheel is the right size and there is no shake (which 
try as before directed), the discharging corner of the pallets 
may be rounded off by means of a diamond file if they are of 
garnets. If they are of ruby, they may be held against an 
ivory mill charged with diamond powder. If the lockings are 
too light and there is but little shake, they may be made safe 

* In planting the wheel and pallets it is always best to err, if at all, by 
making them too deep rather than too light. If they are a shade deep, 
topping the wheel soon puts matters right. 



207 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

by polishing away the locking face a sufficient quantity. If 
one locking is right and one is too light, the one that is too 
light may be made safe by polishing away the locking face 
as before, or the pallet may be warmed and the stone brought 
out a bit. The locking faces of the pallets should be suffi- 
ciently undercut to draw the lever to the banking pins with- 
out hesitation. If they require alteration in this respect, polish 
away the upper part of the locking faces so as to give more 
draw, leaving the locking corner quite untouched. But 
proceed with great care, lest in curing this fault the watch 
sets on the locking, as small watches with light balances are 
very liable to do. If a watch sets on the lockings, or on one 
of them, the locking face or faces may be polished away so 
as to give less draw — i. e. have most taken off the corner of 
the locking. If the watch sets on the the impulse, the im- 
pulse face may be polished to a less angle if the locking is 
sufficiently deep to allow of it. For it must be remembered 
that in reducing the impulse the locking of the opposite pallet 
will also be reduced. In fact, the greatest caution should be 
exercised in making any alteration in the pallets. 

Sometimes in new escapements, the oil at the escape wheel 
teeth will be found to thicken rapidly through the pallet 
cutting the wheel, showing that one or both corners of the 
pallet are too sharp. If ruby, the corner may be polished off 
with a peg cut to the shape of a pivot polisher, and a little of 
the finest diamond powder in oil; if garnet, diamantine on a 
peg will do it very well. Great care should be taken to re- 
move every trace of the polishing material, or the wheel may 
become charged with it. 

See that the pivots are well polished, of proper length to 
come through the holes, and neither bull-headed or taper. 
A conical pivot should be conical only as far as the shoulder; 
the part that runs in the hole must be perfectly cylindrical. 
They must have perceptible and equal side shake, or if any 
difference be made the pallet pivots should fit the closest. 
Both balance staff pivots should be of exactly the same size. 
The end shakes should ail be equal. Bad pivots, bad upright- 
ing, excessive and unequal shake in the pivots are responsible 



LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 208 

for much of the trouble experienced in position timing. 
With unequal end shakes the pallet depth is liable to be altered 
owing to the curved form of the pallet faces. The action of 
the escapement will also be affected if the end shakes are not 
equal, by a banking pin slightly bent, a slight inaccuracy in 
uprighting, and other minute faults. The infinitesimal quan- 
tity necessary to derange the wheel and pallet action may be 
gathered from the fact that a difference of .002 of an inch is 
quite enough to make a tripping pallet depth safe or correct 
depth quite unsound. 

When the wheel and pallets are right, see that the impulse 
'pin is in a line with an arm of the balance, and proceed to try 
if the lever is fixed in the correct position with relation to the 
pallets. Gently move the balance around until the tooth drops 
off the pallet. Observe the position of the balance arm, and 
see if it comes the same distance on the other side of the pallet 
hole when the other pallet falls off. If not the pins connect- 
ing pallet and lever are generally light enough to allow of the 
lever being twisted. When the lever is right with relation 
to the pallets, see that the pallets are quite firmly fixed to the 
lever, and that the lever and pallets are perfectly in poise. 
This latter is an essential point in a fine watch to be timed in 
positions, but it is often neglected. 

See that the escapement is in beat. When the balance 
spring is at rest, the impulse pin should be on the line of 
centres, that is in the middle of its motion. If this is not so, 
the spring should be drawn through or let out from the stud 
if the position of the index allows; if it does not, the roller 
may be twisted around on the staff in the direction required. 

Is the roller depth right? If the safety pin has insufficient 
freedom while there is enough run, the roller is probably 
planted too deep. On the other hand, if it is found that while 
the safety pin has plenty of freedom there is no shake between 
the bankings, the roller depth is probably too shallow. 
When the impulse pin is led around there should be an eq'ual 
clearance all around the inside of the horn, and the pin must 
fall safely into the notch. If it binds in the horn and bottoms 
in the notch it is too deep, and, on the other hand, if with 



209 LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

excessive clearance in the horn the pin when it falls does not 
pass well into the notch, it is too shallow. The readiest 
method of altering is to warm the roller, remove the im- 
pulse pin, and using a to-and-fro motion with a wire and oil- 
stone dust, draw the hole in the required direction. If the 
pin is deep in the notch and too tight in the roller to give a 
little, it should be removed and flattened off a trifle more. If 
too shallow, a triangular pin, or one of some other shape with 
the point of contact more forward, can generally be sub- 
stituted by polishing out the hole towards the crescent. If 
not, the staff hole in the lever may be drawn to allow of shift- 
ing the lever sufficiently ; or the recesses for the jewel settings 
of the balance staff pivots may be scraped away on one side 
and rubbed over on the other to suit. See as it passes around 
that the impulse pin is free when in the notch. 

Just as the safety pin is about to enter the crescent, the im- 
pulse pin must be well inside of the horn. In the single 
roller escapement a very little horn is required, unless the 
crescent has been made of an unnecessary width. In very 
common work one occasionally sees a flat filed on the edge of 
the roller instead of a crescent. There is no excuse for such 
a piece of bungling. 

A fault occasionally met with is that the impulse pin after 
leaving the notch just touches on some part of the inside of 
the horn in passing out. If a wedge of cork is placed under 
the lever, so that the lever moves stiffly, it can be readily seen 
whether or not the impulse pin is free to leave the notch and 
is free all round the horn when the wheel tooth drops on the 
locking. 

See to the safety action. When the tooth drops on to the 
locking, the safety pin should be just clear of the roller. If 
it is not clear, the edge of the roller should be polished down 
until it is right. If there is more than clearance, the safety pin 
must be brought closer to the roller. See upon pressing the 
safety pin against the roller that the tooth does not leave the 
locking, and that the impulse pin is free to enter the notch 
without butting on the horn of the lever; also that the safety 
action is sound, so that the pin is in no danger of passing the 



LOCKING. 210 

roller. If the action is not sound, the diameter of the roller 
should be reduced and the safety pin brought towards it 
sufficiently to get a sound action if it can be done, but if the 
escapement has been so badly proportioned as not to allow of 
a sound action being obtained in this way, the pin must be 
shifted forward and the bankings opened to allow more run. 

See if the banking pins are so placed as to allow of an 
equal run on each side. If not they should not be bent, for 
with bent banking pins a difference in the end shakes of the 
pivots will cause a difference in the run. The banking pin 
allowing of the most run should be removed, and the hole 
broached out to receive a larger pin. 

LOCKING. That portion of the pallet on which the 
escape wheel teeth drop. 

MAGNETISM. The agent or force in nature which 
gives rise to the phenomena of attraction, polarity, etc., exhib- 
ited by the loadstone, magnet, etc. A watch will become 
magnetized by too close proximity to a powerful magnetic 
field, such as is developed in a dynamo electro machine for 
producing electric light, or by coming in contact with an 
ordinary magnet, as well as other sources of magnetic or 
electro- magnetic influences, and by these means all its steel 
parts become permanent magnets. Each piece of steel has 
then assumed definite polarity, so that if it is balanced on a 
point like a compass, it will, like the latter, indicate the direc- 
tion of the earth's magnetic poles. The influence of these 
separate magnets, one on the other, and the influence of the 
earth's magnetism on the different parts, become very potent 
disturbers of time keeping. Hairsprings, balances, and other 
small steel parts often become magnetized through being 
handled with magnetized tweezers or being placed near or in 
contact with other steel tools that have been magnetized. 

Mr. B. Frese exemplifies the influence of the separate 
magnets produced in a watch by its parts becoming mag- 
netized as follows: if we take two compasses and place them 
side by side, so that the two bearing points of the needles will 
form a right angle to their direction, neither of them will 



211 MAGNETISM. 

show any variation from their natural position or the position 
they are compelled to take by the influence of the earth's 
magnetism; but by moving one a little to the North or South 
of this position, we notice a deflection in both, which is caused 
by the poles of unequal names having been brought near to 
each other. Besides this main disturbing influence upon 
accurate time keeping, we must also consider the disturbance 
caused by direct attraction, which takes place by two mag- 
netized parts when their equal, as well as their unequal, 
polarities come close together, but when two extremities of 
equal polarity come close together or in contact, the stronger 
magnetized piece will cause the weaker to assume its own 
polarity, so that when the South polarity of a strongly mag- 
netized piece is brought in contact with the South polarity of 
a weaker, the South of the latter will be changed to North, 
and the North to South when the two North polarities 
have been in contact. The largest steel parts in a watch are 
the mainspring and the case springs, and these are, therefore, 
the most potent to cause a disturbance in a steel or compensa- 
tion balance, aside from the earth's magnetism; the balance 
being the medium by which nearly all the disturbance is 
caused, as during its vibrations it takes different positions to 
the polarities of the other steel parts, as well as the earth's 
polarities, which is the greatest disturber, aside from the 
mainspring, the polarities of which change in relation to the 
balance as the watch runs down. The force one magnetized 
piece exerts on the other multiplies with decreased distance. 
The fork, pallets and 'scape wheel are too small in bulk to 
cause much disturbance, either by direct attraction or directive 
force, unless they are charged to saturation, which very 
seldom occurs. If a magnetized balance is placed on a poising 
tool, with the staff in North and South direction, it will 
appear out of poise, caused by the earth's magnetism, and 
will maintain its North polarity uppermost. If it is placed 
in an East direction, it will no longer allow the North polarity 
to remain uppermost, but will cause the same to move toward 
the North and indicate the magnetic dip, the amount of which 
varies in the different latitudes of the globe. If we place the 



MAGNETISM. 212 

balance in a horizontal position, its North and South polarities 
will coincide with those of a compass, showing that if the 
balance were the only part magnetized in a watch, that 
magnetism causes more complicated variations than a balance 
out of poise to the same extent. That trying to poise 
a magnetized balance would be useless, is self-evident, for 
the reason, that in a horizontal and North and South posi- 
tions no equilibrium can be obtained. The influence of 
magnetized parts that do change position in the watch, is a 
constant one, as long as the size of vibration is maintained, 
and is therefore not the cause of serious disturbance. The 
substituting of new case springs will, therefore, be of little 
or no benefit. 

To detect magnetism, place a pocket compass upon a table 
or show case and place the watch to be operated upon on the 
table close to the compass and to the East and West of it. 
Before starting the test, stop the watch and keep it from 
running by inserting a wedge made from a thin slip of paper 
beneath the balance. Turn the compass box around until the 
needle points to zero before approaching the watch to it. 
Having placed the watch to the East or West of the compass, 
proceed to turn the movement, presenting first one figure of 
the dial and then another to the compass and at the same time 
noting the deflection of the compass needle. Note whether 
the deflection is towards the East or West, i. e. whether it 
repels or attracts the needle. If the movement is not mag- 
netized the compass needle will remain stationary. If it is 
magnetized the needle will be deflected and by noting the 
spot you can very readily detect the magnetized part. Mag- 
netism may be removed from small steel parts by placing 
them in the lathe and revolving them rapidly and at the same 
time approaching them with a horseshoe magnet and then 
gradually withdrawing the magnet. It is not good policy 
however to place any magnetized piece in your lathe as you 
are liable to magnetize chucks and they will cause you no end 
of trouble in the future. Demagnetizes are now to be 
purchased so cheaply that it will starcely pay you to experi- 
ment with home made substitutes. See Demagnetizer. 



2V6 MAGNETISM. 

To Demagnetize Watches. As watches only become 
magnetized by being brought into too close contact with 
magnets, dynamos and the like, it is an utter waste of time 
to try and demagnetize them by applying heat or cold or 
rubbing on decoctions of various kinds. Magnetic influ- 
ence is the only remedy for the evil. The application of the 
remedy is effected in various ways. If we suspect that a 
watch is magnetized, the first thing to do is to prove it. It is 
well to try all watches for magnetism before starting on re- 
pairs, and this can be done in the presence of the customer. 
Place a fair sized pocket compass on, or gummed to the under 
side of your show case glass in such a position that when at 
rest the needle will point to O. Place the watch a little to 
the east or west of the compass and revolve it slowly, watch- 
ing the needle of the compass to see if the needle is deflected. 
Be careful to keep the centers of the watch and compass at a 
given distance apart. If magnetized the needle of the com- 
pass will deflect to the right and left as the watch is revolved. 
Note the deflection at a given point and then proceed to 
revolve. In this way you can closely approximate the loca- 
tion of the affected part. By taking the movement apart you 
can in the same manner readily determine the affected part or 
parts and they can be demagnetized without much difficulty. 
All of the steel parts of a watch except the balance and spring 
can be readily demagnetized in the following manner: Place 
a bar magnet upon a piece of white paper, previously marked 
with lines say one-eighth of an inch apart. Lift the affected 
part with a pair of brass or non-magnetic tweezers and 
approach one end of it within one-eighth of an inch of the 
magnet, then reverse and approach the opposite end to within 
one-fourth of an inch, reverse and approach first end to with- 
in three-eights of an inch and so on until you reach a distance 
where the magnet exerts no influence. Test your piece, as 
previously described, with a compass, and if the cure is not 
effected repeat the operation. The circular form of the bal- 
ance renders it somewhat more difficult to treat successfully, 
and it is best demagnetized as follows: Fasten the balance on 
a large cork, say from one and a half to two inches in diameter, 



MAINSPRING. 214 

by means of small brass pins bent at right angles, and 
mount the cork in your lathe and revolve. Take a ten inch 
compound magnet and approach it as closely to the balance 
as possible and then gradually withdraw the magnet, keeping 
the balance revolving meanwhile, thus presenting every por- 
tion of it to the influence of the magnetic force. In some 
cases it will be found impossible to demagnetize the balance 
although the operation may be repeated many times. A close 
examination and test of the balance by means of a compass 
will show that each arc of the balance has a positive and 
negative end, and the cross bar will be found in the same con- 
dition. Under such circumstances it is absolutely necessary to 
thoroughly magnetize the balance by applying it to the mag- 
net. You can then demagnetize it, as previously described, 
without difficulty. It is advisable not to use your regular lathe 
in this operation but rather to use some old lathe, or a polish- 
ing lathe will be found very desirable. See Demagnetizer. 

MAINSPRING. The ribbon of steel which serves to 
produce the motive power for a watch, chronometer, or clock. 
It is said to be the invention of Peter Hele, a clockmaker of 
Nuremberg, about the year 1500. 

The motive force due to the tension of a spring is more or 
less variable. The causes of this want of uniformity, says 
Saunier, are as follows: The elastic reaction of a spring be- 
comes greater as the spring is further wound up. A metallic 
blade is very rarely homogeneous, and worked with sufficient 
care to avoid different parts being of variable strength. Its 
energy alters with time dependent on the duration and inten- 
sity of the flexure, and this change nearly always occurs 
irregularly throughout its length. Its elastic force diminishes 
slightly on elevating the temperature, and lastly a spring rubs 
against the bottom and lid of the barrel in uncoiling. The 
successive coils also adhere and rub together, either perman- 
ently or occasionally. All these resistances are from the 
nature of the case variable. 

Various forms of mainsprings have been adopted from 
time to time. The cylindrical spring was one in which the 



215 MAINSPRING. 

central coils were made thicker with a view to diminish the 
differences in the pull of the spring when wound up to vary- 
ing degrees and to increase its energy when nearly run down. 
The spring when fully wound up rubbed together in the cen- 
tral coils, so that the motive force when it was fully wound 
was neutralized by the friction. These springs are very 
rarely seen now, as they were expensive to manufacture and 
the advantages they possessed were more apparent than real. 
The taper spring was another form, which is rarely seen now. 
The thickness of the metal in these springs, gradually dimin- 
ished throughout its entire length, the effect being to make 
the coils, when fully wound up, separate, and on this account 
the spring developed freely. This form was abandoned on 
account of the cost of manufacture. The third form is the 
ordinary spring in use today, the thickness of whose coils are 
the same throughout. The development is less uniform than 
with the tapered spring, as is also the separation of the coils, 
but it is cheaper of construction, and the variations do not 
exceed the limits that ordinary escapements can neutralize. 

M. M. Roze, in a work on the mainspring, lays down and 
demonstrates the following theorems: 

i. A mainspring in the act of uncoiling in its barrel, 
always gives a number of turns equal to the difference be- 
tween the number of coils in the up and down positions. 

For example, if 17 is the number of coils when the spring 
is run down, and 25 is the number when against the arbor, 
the difference between 17 and 25 or 8, will represent the num- 
ber of turns in. the uncoiling. 

2. With a given barrel, spring and arbor, in order that 
the number of turns may be a maximum, it is necessary that 
the length of the spring be such that the occupied part of 
the barrel, (exclusive of that filled by the arbor,) be equal to 
the unoccupied part y in other words, the surface covered by 
the spring when up or down must be equal to the uncovered 
surface of the barrel bottom. 

The diameter of the arbor is not an arbitrary quantity, as it 
depends on the duration of flexure and thickness of the 
spring, and this depends greatly on the quality of the metal; 



MAINSPRING PUNCH. 216 

if it is too small it is liable to rupture the spring and deprive it 
of part of its elastic reaction, and if too large, part of this 
reaction will be wasted. M. Roze demonstrated that the 
thickness of the spring should be to the diameter of the arbor 
as 1 126 or 34, according as the rotation of the barrel takes 
place more or less rapidly. For example, 1 126 is best suited 
to watches; 1:30 for chronometers, and 1 134 for clocks or 
time pieces that are expected to go for longer periods.* 

Cleaning Mainsprings. Workmen have often been 
seen cleaning a mainspring by seizing it with a rag and then 
drawing it out pitilessly and unmercifully. No other conse- 
quence can follow such treatment than the breakage of the 
spring on the earliest possible occasion. Cleaning is best 
done in the following manner: Lay the spring in benzine. 
As soon as the adhering oil is dissolved, take it out and seize 
it with a soft linen rag which imbibes the greater part of the 
adhering benzine. Cover the palm of the left hand with a 
corner of the rag, put the spring flat upon it and with the 
index finger of the right hand, around which another part of 
the rag is wound, press gently upon it, and let it assume a 
conical shape; by suitable motions of the finger while wiping y 
the spring will turn, and every part of its blade may easily 
and thoroughly be cleansed of all impurities. A spring 
treated in this manner will be freed of all matter, while at the 
same time its molecular arrangement is not violently inter- 
fered with, in a way calculated to injure its elasticity. 

MAINSPRING PUNCH. A punch used by watch- 
makers for perforating mainsprings. Fig. 143 is Bullock's 
and is a very handy style. It is inserted in a vise when used. 
These punches are also made in the form of tongs or plyers. 

MAINSPRING WINDER. A good mainspring 
winder is a necessary adjunct to every watchmaker's bench. 

*If the reader is desirious of studying the subject at length, he is re- 
ferred to Saunier's Modern Horology, pp. 661 to 673 inclusive, and a 
Simple and Mechanically Perfect Watch, by Moritz Grossman. Geo. 
K. Hazlitt & Co., Chicago. 



217 



MAINSPRING WINDER. 



The Stark patent winder, shown in Fig. 144, is a very super- 
ior tool, is simple and durable, and should last for a life time. 
The winder is fastened in the vise, the adjustable nut is then 

turned until the ban el 
will fit loosely over the 
jaws, the barrel is then re- 
moved and the spring 
wound on the arbor inside 
the jaws. Now let the 
handle turn backward 
until the arbor is free 
from the center, pull the 
arbor back and turn it half 
round, place the barrel 
back again over the jaws 
and spring, and hold it up 
tightly against the face of 
the winder with the left 
hand, at the same time 
push the arbor forward 
with the right hand until 
the barrel and spring are 
free from the jaws, and 
the spring will be found in its proper place without further 
operation. There are two sizes of winding arbors, one for 
small and the other for large barrels. The arbors are easily 
changed by turning the thumb screw up until it is free, then 
changing the arbors 
and screwing the 
thumb screw down 
again. 

The Vaughan patent 
mainspring winder, 
shown in the illustra- 
tion, is intended for 
removing and replac- 
ing springs in clock barrels. Fi< 
ready for use; Fig. 146 shows the arms adjusted to the 




Fig. 143. 




Fig. 144. 

45 shows the machine 



MAINSPRING WINDER. 218 




919 MAINSPRING WINDER 

teeth of barrel, for holding barrel while spring is being wound. 
Fig. 147 shows the winder holding the spring after the barrel 
has been removed and also as wound, ready to place in the 
barrel. 

The claims made for this device are: It winds either way, 
as the case may require. Every part is adjustable so that it 
will handle any spring, and hold any size barrel. Through 
the whole operation of removing the spring from the barrel 
and replacing it, the spring is kept in its natural position. 
After spring and barrel have been cleaned and barrel polished 
they need not be touched with the hands if the operator 
chooses to handle them with paper. The spring can be oiled 
when wound, as in Fig. 147, which carries the oil to bottom 
of the barrel and prevents any excess of oil getting on the 
outside. It does not require a vise, but can be used in one 
place as well as another. There is no strain on the hands 
more than winding the spring after it is in the clock. The 
plates and all the working parts are made of steel, and though 
light and neat in appearance, is strong and durable. 

To take the spring out of the barrel, adjust the arms used 
to hold the barrel, to the right height to meet the teeth of the 
barrel and swing them wide open, securing them by the 
thumb screw on the back of the winder. Place the barrel 
containing the spring over the winding arbor of the machine 
and catch the hook on the arbor to the spring. Swing the 
pawl lever to allow you to wind the way you desire, and turn 
the handle, allowing the barrel to turn with it, until the hook 
in the barrel, to which the outer end of the spring fastens, 
comes to within about one-half inch of the jaws which hold 
the outer edge of the spring on the machine. Free the arms 
and swing them into the teeth of the barrel, and with the 
barrel in the center of the machine, again secure them firmly 
by the thumb screw. Take the machine in the left hand, 
which will allow you to hold the arms tightly to the barrel 
and the barrel down to the winder without any danger 
of their springing away. Wind the spring nearly up, 
which will free the outer coil from the barrel and enable 
you to adjust the jaws to the spring. Crowd the jaws 



MAINTAINING POWER. 220 

on to the spring as far as possible and fasten them firmly 
to the spring by means of the thumb screw at the upper 
end of the winder. The spring is now transferred from 
the barrel to the winder, and the arms can be released and 
the barrel removed. Reverse the pawl lever, turn the handle 
up a trifle when the pawl will change sides, allowing the 
spring to let down. 

To replace the spring in the barrel, wind the spring on the 
machine, as shown in Fig. 3. Place the barrel over it with 
the hook opposite the hole in the spring. Reverse the pawl 
lever and let the spring down. Release the jaws from the 
spring and the work is done. The arms for holding the 
barrel are only used in taking the spring out. 

MAINTAINING POWER. A mechanism for driv- 
ing a watch or clock while being wound. 

MALTESE CROSS. A wheel in the shape of a mal- 
tese cross, used in stop works. 

MANDRIL. A cheap form of lathe, but little used in 
this country, being superceded by the American lathe. It is 
known also as Swiss Universal Lathe. The mandril is 
worked by me ins of a h mdle, and is usually made with wheel 



Fie,. 148. 

and pinion, although a round belt or gut is sometimes used. 
It has a face plate, pump center, tail stock and slide rest. This 
tool is superfluous where the workman has an American 



221 MASS. 

lathe with slide rest and universal head; for on a lathe with 
these attachments, a greater variety of work can be performed 
in less time and in a better manner. 

MASS. The amount of matter a body contains. It must 
not be confounded with weight, for the mass of a body 
remains the same no matter in what part of the world it may 
be, but its weight would vary in different latitudes. 

MATERIAL CUP. This cup will be found very use- 
ful to those who keep small material in bottles. The material 
being piaced in the cup spreads out over the bottom, and the 
piece wanted is easily selected. The remainder can then be 
returned to the bottle through the spout with no danger of 
losing a piece. 

MATTING. The grained or frosted surface given to 
work before gilding or silvering. See Electro- Plating . 

MERIDIAN DIAL. An instrument for determining 
when the sun is on the meridian. 

MICROMETER. An instrument used for measuring 
very minute distances with extreme exactness. See Gauge. 

MILLIMETER. A lineal Measure based on the thous- 
andth part of a meter, or about one-twenty-fifth of an inch. 
It is used principally by French watchmakers. 

MILLING FIXTURE. This attachment is fitted to 
the slide rest and holds the wire chuck 
vertically under the center of the lathe, 
so that articles held in the chucks can be 
fed under mills or saws held in the saw 
arbor. 




MOMENTUM. The amount of 
motion in a body which is obtained by 
multiplying its mass by its velocity. 

MOTION WORK. The wheels 
Fig. 149. Q f a wa tch or clock which cause the hour 

hand to travel one-twelfth as fast as the minute hand. 



MOVEMENT. 



222 



MOVEMENT. 




Fig. 150. 



A term usually applied to the mechan- 
ism of a watch or clock inde- 
pendent of a case. 

MOVEMENT BOX. A 

metal box with glass sides for 
holding watch movements while 
timing, etc. before casing. In 
the Rockford box shown in 
Fig. 150 stem wind movements 
can be wound without fingering 
or exposure to dust. 



MOVEMENT COVER. 

movement or portions of a 
movement from dust and from 
being lost while undergoing 
repairs. Fig. 151, illustrates an 
improved cover with wooden 
base divided into compartments 
for the reception of the various 
parts so they may be kept 
separate and readily picked 
out. 



A glass shade to protect a 




Fig. 151 



MOVEMENT HOLDER. A metal frame as shown 
in Fig. 152, having three adjustable arms for holding the 
movement by clamping on to the plate. It is useful in put- 
ting a watch together, as it 
rests upon the bench and 
leaves both hands free to 
work with and the plates 
are kept free from finger 
marks. 

MOVEMENT REST 

A wooden, bone or rubber 
shell, similar to eye-glass 
frames, for holding move- 




Fig. 152. 



ments while undergoing repairs, oiling, etc. 




223 NON-MAGNETIC 

NON-MAGNETIC WATCH. A watch whose parts 
cannot be polarized in a magnetic field; a watch whose quick 
moving parts are made of some other metals than steel or 
iron. Paillard who has studied non- 
magnetic metals with great care, makes 
his balance springs of palladium, and his 
balances of palladium alloyed with 
copper, silver and other metals. In 
some instances, says Britten, he appears 
to have used a palladium alloy for the 
inner part, and brass for the outer part 
of the rim, and in others to have formed 
both laminae of different alloys of 
palladium. Aluminum bronze, (See 
Alloys), which combines strength with lightness, is particu- 
larly suited for the lever and pallets. The American Wal- 
tham Watch Company have obtained remarkable results in 
non-magnetic watches, with an alloy of platinum. Steel in 
its hardened and tempered form, has long been used for the 
balance springs of watches, but f *-om the fact that it owed its 
elasticity to the process of fire hardening, it has always been 
uncertain in its action, and often two springs from the same 
piece of steel would give very different results when put to 
the same tests. This, it is claimed, is not true of the alloy 
used by the Waltham Company. The non-magnetic spring, 
they claim, is a natural spring; it requires no rolling or ham- 
mering to harden or make it elastic. Its elasticity is a prop- 
erty of the alloy, and from nothing mechanical done to it, 
that it cannot be annealed or robbed of its elasticity can be 
shown by heating it to a red heat of nearly i ioo degrees Fahr., 
with no change of elasticity. At this degree of heat, steel is 
annealed, or becomes soft, and of no use as a spring. 

In the expansion balance of ordinary construction, intended 
to compensate for temperature, steel is used as the metal of 
lowest expansion ratio, but in this case never in its hardened 
and tempered form. Such a balance would be too irregular 
in its action. No two balances would work alike, and any- 
one manufacturing such, would find a difference of temper or 



OIL. 224 

degree of elasticity in each arm and inside steel laminae. 
The greatest controlling factor in the expansion balance, is 
the brass outside laminae, and unless it is hammered or rolled 
it is of no practical use. A good expansion balance of the 
usual make depends more on the brass than the steel for its 
action, and it is a well known fact that brass is one of the 
most uncertain alloys known, and will often, when not in use, 
deteriorate to such an extent as to have no value for its origi- 
nal purpose. The Waltham non-magnetic balance is said to 
stand a change of temperature of 400 degrees Fahr., and re- 
turn to its original form as shown by gauges. (See descrip- 
tion of gauge and illustration at Fig. 8) under head of Bal- 
ances. The non-magnetic balance metals while having the 
expansive ratio required, also have a greater natural degree of 
elasticity than the brass and steel construction, thus making a 
balance that when in use in the watch, retains its shape, and 
will not get out of poise. 

OIL. One of the most essential things to the good per- 
formance and durability of a watch or clock is good oil. A 
little thought given to the subject of oil will show how very 
essential it is that only the very best attainable be used. The 
mechanism of a fine watch, and particularly one of a compli- 
cated nature, is expected to perform regularly and with little 
or no variation, although after a thorough cleaning and oiling 
that mechanism may not fall into the hands of the repairer 
oftener than once a year, and in the majority of cases it is a 
longer interval of time. There are few mechanical contri- 
vances from which so much is expected as a fine watch or 
chronometer, and yet there are none that receive in proportion 
to their mechanism, so little care and attention. The engineer 
carefully wipes and oils his engine at least once a day; the 
machinist does the same with his lathes and the machines 
under his care, but the watch, a mechanism far more compli- 
cated and from which much more is expected, iu regard to 
correct performance, does not receive this care oftener, on an 
average, than once a year. How essential is it then that the 
lubricant be of the finest possible quality. 



225 OIL. 

The essential requisites of an oil that will insure correct 
performance of a watch during this time are: 

i. It must remain liquid when exposed to severe cold. 

2. It must evaporate slowly under intense heat. 

3. It must not corrode on metal. 

4. It must not become gummy. 

What oils best withstand these tests? For many years 
European watchmakers gave the preference to pure olive oil, 
but experiment has proven that this oil is wholly unfit for 
watches and the same may be said of all vegetable oils, for 
they invariably become gummy and turn green when placed 
in contact with brass. Neat's foot oils were found to possess 
similar unfitting qualities, and mineral oils are found to evap- 
orate too quickly. 

Nothing then remains but fish oils and those made from a 
species of porpoise known as the black fish, are considered 
the very best. Fine watch and chronometer oils of this class 
are prepared from the head and jaw only, which parts yield 
a limited quantity of very pure oil, known as " jaw and melon 
oil." This oil is carefully extracted without allowing any 
flesh or blood to come in contact with it, and after trying is 
filtered and retained in its native purity as nearly as possible, 
no bleaching, either by sun, acids or alkalies being employed. 
There is a popular fallacy existing in the trade that oils 
should be used when fresh, and even the acknowledged 
authority, Saunier, says, " do not buy from motives of econ- 
omy, bottles that have laid for years in the shop." This may 
be true, and probably is, in regard to vegetable and animal 
oils, which are likely to become rancid if kept for a long 
time, but Wm. F. Nye, one of the largest and most celebrated 
manufacturers of fine watch and chronometer oils in the 
world, declares that black fish oils are improved by age, and 
his oils are seldom placed upon the market in the same year 
as obtained. We are indebted to the same authority for the 
statement that oils of this kind are clearer and more brilliant 
after some years than fresh oils. The Nye oils are tried at 
New Bedford, Mass., and in the following winter are sent to 
St. Albans, Vt., where it is chilled down and filtered at an 



OILER. 226 

average temperature of 25 below zero, and in some in- 
stances, even as low as 37 below zero. In this manner the 
specific gravity and density of the oil is increased, a finer grain 
and texture are secured, giving increased resistance to the 
effects of both heat and cold. The two prominent manufac- 
turers of black fish oils in this country, and we might say in 
the world, are Wm. F. Nye and Ezra Kelley, both of New 
Bedford, Mass. The watchmaker should be very careful 
what oils he uses, as many on the market are of foreign 
manufacture and are made from the olive, or are combinations 
of animal and vegetable oils. 

OILER. A fine steel wire, mounted in a wooden or bone 
handle and used for applying oil to the mechanism of a watch 




Fig. 154. 

or clock. Fig. 154 is a Bullock oiler, made with 14k. gold tip, 
and has a collet which keeps the point from touching the 
bench and also prevents oiler from rolling. 

OIL SINK. The cavity turned in watch and clock plates 
and jewels, around the pivot holes. Experience, says Britten, 
has shown that when the oil sink in chronometers and clocks 
where the plates are not gilt is thoroughly well polished, not 
only is the oil drawn to the pivot more freely, but it is less 
decomposed by contact with the metal than when the sinks 
are rougher. Oil sinks should be deep and small in diameter 
rather than shallow and wide. Saunier says that care should 
be taken that the internal faces of the holes in which the 
shoulders of the axis rest, as well as the external faces, when 
these holes are provided with end-stones, are hollowed in 
tallow drop form, with a very slight interval between the bot- 
tom of the hole and the end-stone. When these precautions 
are taken, the oil, if not present in too great a quantity, will 
neither spread nor run down the axis, but will remain partly 
in the oil sink and partly attached to the shoulders of theaxis ? 
and in the case of pivot holes with end-stones, as the oil is 



227 OILSTONES. 

exhausted, that spread over the end-stone will be drawn into 
the pivot hole through capillarity. 

OILSTONES. A mixture of one part alcohol and two 
parts glycerine will be found a much better lubricant for the 
oilstone, where small tools such as watchmakers use, are 
sharpened, than will the ordinary oils used. Oilstones often 
become so saturated with oil as to be almost useless and are 
often abandoned on this account. Such a stone if soaked in 
benzine for a few days will come out as good as new. 

Circular Oilstones. Circular stones will be found 
much superior to the ordinary flat oilstones commonly 
used, for sharpening drills, gravers and other cutting tools 
where it is desirable to have an exact angle. An Arkansas or 
Turkey stone dressed down to circular form, and say i^ 
inches in diameter when mounted on a lathe chuck will be 
found to be far superior to the common flat stone. Apply a 
small quantity of watch oil, or what is better, a mixture com- 
posed of one-half alcohol and one-half glycerine, and hold 
your graver or drill at the exact angle you want the cutting 
edges and turn at a moderate speed. Truer angles and better 
work can be obtained in this manner than by any other* 
Emery and corundum wheels mounted in a similar manner 
will be found very handy accessories to the watchmakers' 
bench. 

OILSTONE DUST. A preparation of powdered oil- 
stone, used for smoothing pivots and other steel parts. 

OVERBANKING. When the balance vibrates excess- 
ively and causes the ruby pin to push past the lever it is 
known as overbanking. 

OVERCOIL. The last coil of a Breguet hairspring 
where it is bent over the body of the spring towards the cen- 
ter is called the overcoil. 

PALLET. That portion of an escapement by means of 
which the escape wheel gives impulse to the balance. 

PALLET STAFF. The staff or axis of the pallets. 



PALLET STONE. 



228 



The stones which form the rub- 



Fig. 155 is a 



Fig. 155. 



PALLET STONES. 

hing surfaces of a pallet. 

PALLET STONE ADJUSTER. 

Bullock pallet stone adjuster, 
which will be found very usef u> 
in holding pallets and protec- 
ting them from heat while 
heating cement in order to adjust stones. 

PEG WOOD. Small round sticks of wood used for 
cleaning out pivot holes, etc. 

PENDANT. The portion of a watch case to which the 
bow is attached and the portion connecting it with the case. 

Pendant Bow. The ring of metal to which the chain is 
attached to the case. 

Pendant Bow Tightener. 

Bullock's patent pendant bow pliers, 
shown in Fig. 156, are very handy 
for tightening a loose pendant bow 
or putting a distorted bow into shape 
again. It is always desirable to have 
the pendant bow of a watch tight 
in its place, and turn with consid- 
erable friction, though it is sometimes 
fig. 156. difficult to tighten a loose bow when 

the seat is worn deep. 

PENDULUM. The mass of metal or other substances 
whose vibrations regulate the train of a clock. The theoreti- 





Fig. 157. 

cal length of a pendulum to beat seconds or other time de- 
pends upon the location of the clock, for the force that 
gravity exerts upon a body depends on the distance of the 



229 



PENDULUM SPRING. 



y from the center of the earth. 


The length 


dulum at 




The Equator is 


39 inches. 


Rio de Janeiro, 


39.01. 


Madras, 


39.02. 


New York 


• 39- IO - 


Paris, - 


39^3' 


London, - 


- 39-H- 


Edinburgh, 


39- r 5- 


Greenland, 


39.20. 



North or South Pole, 39.206. 

PENDULUM SPRING. The ribbon or ribbons of 
steel used in suspending the pendulum. 

PILLAR. Posts of brass used to keep the plates of a 
watch in position. 

PILLAR PLATE. The plate of a watch to which the 
pillars are attached. 



PINION. The smaller 
are geared into one another. 
a pinion leaf. 



of two toothed wheels which 
The tooth of a pinion is called 



Pinion Grinder and Polisher. The ends of the leaves 
of pinions, when ground flat and polished, add very much to 
the beauty of a job when completed. Proceed to turn down 
your pinion in the lathe and fit it in the usual manner, ready 
for finishing. Now select a suitable chuck to hold the pinion 
in the lathe and take a few copper cartridge shells, used in 22 
or 32 calibre revolvers, and drill four holes in the end to fit 
the staff of the pinion you wish to polish. Fit a piece of 
wood about three inches long in the open end of the cartridge 
shells to use as a handle; do not allow the handle to enter the 
shell over one-fourth of an inch, so that it will not strike 
against the pivot of the pinion while polishing. Now file flat 
the closed end of the cartridge and your grinding and polish- 
ing tool is complete. Insert the pinion in one of the holes of 
the shell so that the flat surface of the shell will come up 



PINPALLETESCAFEMENT. 230 

squarely against the face of the leaves of the pinion. Apply 
a paste made of emery flour and sweet oil and run the lathe 
at a high speed, pressing slightly against the pinion leaves. 
Transfer from one hole to another to insure flatness. Clean 
off the pinion with benzine and examine to see that the marks 
of the turning tool are all out. If not, proceed as before. 
Take another shell prepared in like manner, and use crocus 
and oil instead of emery, and grind out the scratches of the 
emery. After removing these, wash thoroughly in benzine 
and with another copper shell proceed to polish, using a paste 
of diamantine and oil or alcohol. A good polish will soon 
appear. Care must be exercised to see that the work is 
thoroughly cleaned after each process. The shells can then 
be laid away in separate boxes for future use. During leisure 
moments you can prepare a number of these shells to fit 
almost any job and you will find them very handy for many 
purposes. 

PIN PALLET ESCAPEMENT. An escapement 
used mostly in French clocks, in which it is often placed in 
front of the dial. The pallets are formed of semi-circular 
stones, generally cornelian. 

This excellent escapement, says Britten, (invented by M. 
Brocot), rarely seen except in small French clocks, appears to 
be worthy of more extended use. The fronts of the teeth of 
the escape wheel are sometimes made radial, as shown in Fig. 
158; sometimes cut back so as to bear on the point only, like 
the " Graham ;" and sometimes set forward so as to give recoil 
to to the wheel during the motion of the pendulum beyond 
the escaping arc. The pallets, generally of cornelian, are of 
semi-circular form. The diameter of each is a trifle less than 
the distance between the two teeth of the escape wheel. The 
angle of impulse in this escapement bears direct reference to 
the number of teeth embraced by the pallets. Ten is the 
usual number, as shown in the drawing. The distance be- 
tween the escape wheel and pallet staff centers should not be 
less than the radius of the wheel x 1.7. This gives about /\° 
of impulse measured from the pallet staff center. 



231 PIN PALLETESCAPEMENT 

English clockmakers rather object to this escapement on 
account of the difficulty of keeping oil to the pallets, which 
is aggravated if there is much space between the root of the 




/ 1/ \ 



Fig. 158. 

pallet stone and the face of the wheel. The effect of the 
want of oil is much more marked if the pallets are made of 
steel instead of jewel. Any tendency of this escapement to 
set is generally met by flattening the curved impulse faces 
of the pallets. 

PIN VISE. An improved form of pin vise is that shown in 
Fig. 159, manufactured by Mr. Logan. It is hollow through- 
out its entire length and closes together, the same as a chuck 



232 PIN WHEEL ESCAPEMENT 

on the American lathe. It will hold a small drill or wire per- 
fectly true and will be found very useful for many purposes. 



Fig. 159. 

PIN WHEEL ESCAPEMENT. The pin wheel 
escapement was invented by Lepauie about 1753. A clock 
escapement analogus in its action to the " Graham." The 
impulse is given by nearly half-round pins standing out from 
the face of the escape wheel. The one advantage over the 
Graham is that the pressure on the pallets is always down- 
wards, so that excessive shake in the pallet staff hole, which 
may be looked for in course of time, especially in large 
clocks, would not affect the amount of impulse. 

This escapement is used principally in turret clocks. The 
chief objection to it practically, says Britten, is the difficulty of 
keeping the pins lubricated, the oil being drawn away to the 
face of the wheel. To prevent this a nick is sometimes cut 
around the pins, close to the wheel, but this weakens the pins 
very much. The best plan is to keep the pallets as close as 
they can be to the face of the wheel without touching. 

Lepaute made the pins semi-circular, and placed alternately 
on each side of the wheel so as to get the pallets of the same 
length. This requires double the number of pins, and there 
is no real disadvantage in having one pallet a little longer than 
the other, provided the short one is put outside, as shown in 
the drawing. Sir Edmund Beckett introduced the practice 
of cutting a piece off the bottoms of the pins, which is a dis- 
tinct improvement, for if the pallet has to travel past the 
center of the pin with a given arc of vibration before the pin 
can rest, the pallets must be very long unless very small pins 
are used. 

The escaping arc is generally 20, and the diameter of 
the pins is then 40 measured from the pallet staff hole. 

Then with a given diameter of pin, to find the mean length 
of pallets, divide the given diameter by .069. 



238 PIN WHEEL ESCAPEMENT 

Or if the mean length of pallets is given, the diameter of 
pins may be found by multiplying the given length by .069. 

The opening between the extreme points of the pallets 
=2°, that is, half the diameter of the pins. 




a. Escape Wheel. b and c. Pallets. 

Fig. 160. 

With ah escaping arc of 3 the mean length of the pallet 
arms is ten times the diameter of the pins. 

The angle of impulse is divided between the pins and the 
pallets, and care must be taken that the pallets are not cut 
back too much. When a pin escapes from one pallet, the 
bottom of the succeeding pin must fall safely on the rest of 

16 



PIVOT. ^34 

the other pallet. It is best before finishing the impulse planes 
to place the pallets in position, and mark them off with 
reference to the pins. The thickness of the two pallets and one 
pin contained between them equals, less drop which is very 
small, the space between two pins from center to center. 
The pallets are of steel, hardened at the acting parts, and 
screwed to a collar on the pallet staff. The rests are slightly 
rounded so as to present less surface to the pins, and the 
curves struck from a little below the pallet staff hole so as to 
be hardly " dead." The pins should be of gun-metal or very 
hard brass, or aluminium bronze, round when screwed into 
the wheel, and cut to shape in an engine afterwards. 

PIVOT. The end of an arbor or shaft that rests in a 
support or bearing. 

Length of Balance Pivots. Saunier recommends the 
removal of the endstone to see that the pivot projects enough 
beyond the pivot hole when the plate is inverted. Remove 
the cock and detatch it from the balance. Take off the bal- 
ance spring with its collet from this latter and place it on the 
cock inverted, so as to see whether the collet is central when 
the outer coil is midway between the curb pins. Remove 
the cock endstone and endstone cap, place the top balance 
pivot in its hole and see that it projects a little beyond the 
pivot hole. Place the balance in the calipers to test its truth 
and at the same time to see that it is in poise. It must be 
remembered, however, that the balance is sometimes put 
out of poise intentionally. See Poising the Balance. 

The Play of Pivots. Saunier gives the following rules 
for the play of escapement pivots: In the cylinder escape- 
ment about one-sixth the diameter of the pivot. In the duplex 
escapement about one-tenth the diameter of the pivot. In 
the lever escapement about one-eighth the diameter of the pivot 
A large hole causes the pitching of the depths to vary with 
position, and a deficient play renders the escapement more sen- 
sitive to thickening of the oil. There is less inconvenience 
when the play is somewhat in excess than when it is deficient. 



^35 PIVOT. 

In determining the play of train wheel pivots proceed as fol- 
lows: Allow the train to run down and if it does so noisily 
or by jerks it may be assumed that some of the depths are 
bad, in consequence either of the teeth being badly formed, 
or the holes too large, etc. To test the latter point, cause the 
wheels to revolve alternately in opposite directions by apply- 
ing a ringer to the barrel or center wheel teeth, at the same 
time noting the movement of each pivot in turn, in its hole. 
A little practice will soon enable the workman to judge 
whether the play is correct. The running down of the train 
will also indicate whether any pivots are bent. It is impor- 
tant that the center pivots project beyond the holes in the 
plate and bridge. 

To Straighten Pivots. Saunier recommends that a 
number of straight holes be drilled in a plate at exactly right 
angles to its surface. Introduce the pivot into a hole that it 
fits with very little play, and redress it by causing the staff to 
rotate, at the same time holding the plate in the hand. Cau- 
tion is necessary, since there is some risk of bending the pivot 
too far. 

The Friction of Train Pivots. It is very important to 
reduce the friction of the wheel pivots to a minimum quantity, 
and to make it constant so that the motive power be transmitted 
with the greatest possible uniformity to the balance or pendu- 
lum, which is necessary to enable the latter to maintain its 
arc of oscillation of the same magnitude. The friction of the 
pivots is due to the pressure of the motive power and the 
weight of the wheels. The wheel work nearest the motive 
power must have strong pivots so that they possess sufficient 
resistance, neither wear the pivot holes to one side nor enlarge 
them, by which the friction Would be increased and at the 
same time alter the true point of engagement. In tenor with 
the distance of the wheels from the motive power, the thick- 
ness of their pivots must decrease because these latter sustain 
less pressure, and are subject to a greater velocity than the 
first parts. 



PIVOT. 236 

Pivoting Cylinders. It often happens that cylin- 
ders are broken while turning down pivots. To avoid 
this proceed as follows: Select a piece of silver or German- 
silver joint wire, the opening of which is slightly larger than 
the diameter of the cylinder, (lower end); cut off a piece the 
length of the cylinder proper, leaving the pivot projecting 
through. Fill the cylinder with lathe wax and slip on the 
little piece of joint wire while the cement is quite warm. Pro- 
ceed to true up by the pivot in the usual way and when the 
wax is quite cold, turn down and polish the pivot before re- 
moving from the lathe. If care is used in cutting the joint 
wire the proper length, it will answer as a gauge for the 
length of the cylinder. If the joint wire is properly cemented 
on the cylinder, it is almost impossible to break it. The lower 
part of the cylinder can be left in this condition and the upper 
part can be turned down to fit the balance, hair-spring, collet 
and pivot. After this is done remove from the lathe and dis- 
solve the cement in alcohol in a bottle. 

Shape of Pivots. Pivots must be hard, round and well 
polished ; their shoulders are to be flat, not too large, with 
ends well rounded off so that they do not wear the cap jewel. 
The jewel holes must be round, smooth and not larger than 
is requisite for the free motion of the pivot which is surrounded 
with oil. Their sides must be parallel to those of the pivots, 
so that they sustain the pressure of the pivot equally at all 
points of their length. The holes, if of brass or gold, must 
have been hammered sufficiently hard, so that the pores of 
the metal are closed to prevent too rapid a wear. It is well 
if the oil sinks are of a size that will accommodate a sufficient 
quantity of oil, which, if too little, would soon dry out or be- 
come thickened with the worn off particles of the metal. The 
under turnings of the pinion leaves are conical, but in such a 
way that the thicker part be nearest to the pivot, because by 
this disposition the oil is retained at the pivot by attraction, 
and does not seek to spread into the pinion leaves, as is often 
the case, especially with flat watches in which this provision 
is frequently slighted. 



V6 r 



PIVOT GAUGE. 




Fig. 161. 



PIVOT GAUGE. A steel plate with tapered slit for 
measuring the diameter of pivots. See Gauge, (Dennison's). 

PIVOT POLISHER. The pivot polisher is used for 
grinding and polishing conical and straight pivots and shoulders. 
It is also useful for drilling, polishing orsnailing steel wheels, 

milling out odd places in 
plate or bridge where 
only a part of a circle is 
to be removed, etc. The 
circular base being gradu- 
ated to degrees it can be 
set at any angle. The 
spindle has a taper hole 
for drill chucks, which 
makes the fixture very use- 
ful for drilling either in the center or eccentric, and by using* 
the graduations on the pulley of the headstock an accurately 
spaced circle of holes may be drilled. Fig. i6l is the Ameri- 
can Watch Tool Company's 
polisher; Fig. 162, the 
Mosely, and Fig. 163, the 
Rivett pattern. 

The polisher is used as 
follows: After the pivot is 
turned to proper shape, put 
on your polisher (spindle 
parallel with lathe bed), with 
lap back of pivot. Use cast 
iron lap first. (Square corners for square shoulders, and round 
corners for conical.) Lap for conical shoulder can be readily 
cornered with a fine file, and cross-grind with fine oil stone to 
remove an)' lines made by graver. Lines on end can be 
removed same way, or in fingers rubbed on piece of ground 
glass which has on it a paste of oil stone and oil well mixed. 

This will rapidly bring them up to a sharp corner nicer 
than by the graver. On the iron laps use No. 1 crocus or 
very fine oil stone powder, well ground down in oil to a 




Fig. i6j. 




POISING TOOL. -238 

paste. When roughed out to your liking, wipe off the crocus, 
and with a little oil touch the pivot gently, repeat the second 
time. Then change lap for one of box-wood, and use crocus 
No. 4, very fine and well ground down to paste. Proceed as 
with first lap, being careful at all times to keep the lap 

properly oiled and not 
pressed too hard against 
the work, particularly 
in the last operation. 
Also be sparing of your 
grinding or polishing 
material. About three 
"f, & . 163. ' specks of polish with 

point of a small knife is sufficient. Bring the lap up carefully 
against the work until spread all the way around, then pro- 
ceed, bearing in mind that grinding is not polishing, and that 
to polish nicely the work and lap must be very nearly the 
right shape. To thoroughly clean the laps, dip in benzine. 

POISING TOOL. A tool used for poising or ascertaining 
if the metal in a balance is evenly disposed around the axis. 
See Balance. 

POLISHING. See Cleansing, Pickling and Polishing* 
For polishing of steel, pivots, etc. See Steel, Pivots, etc. 

POTENCE. A bracket used for supporting the lower 
end of the balance staff in full-plate watches. 

PUMP CENTER. The small, pointed steel shaft in 
the center of a universal head, which is used" for centering the 
work. 

PUSH PIECE. The movable part of a pendant used 
for opening the case. The small movable projection on the 
side of a case which is pushed in when setting the hands. 

QUARTER SCREWS. The four timing screws in a 
compensation balance. 



239 



RACK LEVER. 



RACK LEVER. A watch escapement, said to have 
been invented by Abbe Hautefeuille in 1734. The lever 
terminated in a rack, which worked into a pinion on the bal- 
ance staff. 

RATCHET. A wheel having pointed teeth and fixed to 
an arbor to prevent it turning backward. A click or pawl 
falls in between the teeth of the wheel and prevents it turning 
backward. See Click. 

RECOIL ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in which 
the teeth are pressed backward or recoiled by the pallets after 
coming to rest, as in the Anchor Escapement. 

RED STUFF. Sesquioxide of iron, used for polishing 
brass and steel by mixing with oil. Crocus, rouge and clinker 
are various grades of red stuff. 

REGULATOR. The small steel hand or lever to the 
shorter end of which the curb pins are attached, and which 
by moving from side to side practically shortens the hair 
spring. See Curb Pins. 

REPAIR CLAMPS. The Magic repair clamps shown 




Fig. 



164. Fig. 165. 

in Figs. 164 to 166 are used for holding various kinds of work 
in position, while repairing, soldering, etc. In addition to the 



REPEATER. 



240 



uses shown in the illustrations, it is also applicable for dozens 
of operations that will suggest themselves to the possessor. 




Fig. i 66. 

It is so arranged that the end screws can be used as feet and 
the handles as a support (as shown in the illustration), so 
that the tool with the work in it will stand up, leaving the 
operator free to use charcoal or asbestos block in one hand and 
blow pipe in the other. It is especially valuable for holding 
dials, when soldering on feet. 

REPEATER. A watch which indicates the time by 
repeating it by means of gongs or bells. There are hour, 
quarter, half-quarter, five-minute, and minute repeaters. They 
were first made about 1686, and are said to be the invention of 
Daniel Quare. 

To Bend Gong Wires. The bending of a gong wire 
in a repeating watch, in order to free it from any point it 
touches, often results in diminishing the sound considerably. 
In such a case Immisch advises as follows: If the spring 
touches on the outside and must consequently be bent inward, 
it should be laid upon a convex piece of brass corresponding 
in shape with the inner side of the spring at the place where 
it is to be bent; then if the outside be slightly hammered with 



241 REPEATER. 

the sharp edge of a hammer, the small indentations produced 
will cause the outside to lengthen a little and the inside to con- 
tract in proportion. The change of form will be very gradual 
and the granular disturbance, being spread over a large area, 
will not be great enough to effect the tone in the least. The 
more a spring is bent to and fro in any direction the more it 
will lose its elastic force. In soft springs especial care should 
be taken to make any change very gradual, repeating the 
operation oftener rather than to bend too much at one time, 
and thereby necessitate the bending back of the spring. If a 
perfectly adjusted and very soft spring should be bent and 
brought back again to exaetly'its former position, the vibra- 
brations would be no longer isochronous, and by repeating 
the experiment the elastic force or the spring curve will be- 
come so small compared with that possessed by the body of 
the spring, that instead of exercising a control over the latter, 
its motion becomes subservient to it. A harder spring will 
bear a much greater amount of manipulation, and a Breguet 
spring, the form of which in itself necessitates a ceitain 
amount of bending, must always have a greater degree of 
hardness than that necessary for helical springs, in order that 
the advantage possessed by this form should be of the greatest 
possible use. It is also necessary that a certain time should 
elapse before ascertaining the result of the change affected. 
Metallic bodies possessing any degree of elasticity, if forced 
into a different shape, do not retain the newly acquired shape 
exactly, but have a tendency to return in some degree to- 
ward that shape from which they have been forced* The 
reactionary force becomes gradually less active, until after a 
time it ceases altogether. The time required for the shape 
to become permanent differs greatly with the degree of elas- 
ticity. It is sometimes desirable to bend a spring, but the 
repairer being afraid of breaking it abandons the idea. Sup- 
pose it is desirable to bend a side click spring of a Swiss bridge 
watch, which by the way, is generally made of poor steel. 
Take hold of the end in which the screw goes with a pair of 
brass-nosed sliding tongues, holding it in the left hand; then 
press a piece of brass against the click, bending it in the 



RESILIENT ESCAPEMENT. %42 

direction desired, and at thesa«ie time holding it over the flame 
of a spirit lamp until the center or spring part becomes a straw 
or dark red color. The fact that spring-tempered steel is 
brought to a dark red-blue twenty times over, will not reduce 
it below its former temper; on the contrary, it will tend to 
equalize and improve the temper and render it less liable to 
break. Suppose a cylinder pivot, or any pivot of any of the 
escapement parts are bent and you wish to straighten it by 
this process; take a small brass ring, fit it to the pivot and 
hold over the flame of the lamp, bending it at the same time 
in the desired direction. 

RESILIENT ESCAPEMENT. A form of the lever 
escapement in which the lever yields, when pressed upon on 
the outside by the impulse pin, and allows the pin to pass. 
See Lever Escapement, 

RING GAUGE. A s"auge used by jewelers for meas- 




uring the internal dimensions of finger rings. 

RIVETING STAKE. A steel block pierced with a 
number of different sized holes. See Staking Tool. 

ROLLER REMOVER. There are numerous designs 
in the way of roller removers upon the market, but lack of 
space prevents description and illustrations of them. Fig 168 




illustrates tne Bush remover while Fig. 169, illustrates that 
made by Mr. Logan. They are both excellent tools and do 
the work in a satisfactory manner. These tools are so 



243 



ROSE CUTTER. 



thoroughly understood by watchmakers that a detailed des- 
cription of their modus operandi seems superfluous. 




iuG- my. 

ROSE CUTTER. A hollow cutter, as shown in Fig. 
170, used for reducing the size of wire, as 
in forming heads when making screws. 




ROUGE. See Red Stuff. 

Fig. 170. 

ROUNDING UP TOOL ATTACHMENT. The 

Webster rounding up tool attachment, shown in Fig. 171, is a 

very useful adjunct to the 
lathe. It is attached to the 
top of the slide-rest. To 
operate, a pointed taper 
in the taper chuck is 
put in the lathe spindle. 
The wheel to be rounded 
up is put into the fixture and 
the wheel adjusted verti- 
cally so that the point of 
the lathe center will be at 
the center of the thickness 
of the wheel, after which 
the lower spindle of the 
Now remove the wheel, also 




Fig. 171. 
fixture should not be moved. 



the taper chuck, and put the saw arbor, with the rounding-up 



RUBY PIN. 244 

cutter, in the lathe spindle, and adjust the longitudinal slide of 
the slide-rest so that the rounding-up cutter will be back of and 
in line with the center of the rounding-up fixture, after which 
the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest should not be moved. 
Now put the wheel and supporting collet in place, and proceed 
with the rounding-up. 

RUBY PIN. The impulse pin in the lever escapement. 

RUBY ROLLER. The roller in the duplex escape- 
ment which locks the escape wheel teeth. 

SAFETY PIN. In the lever escapement, a pin that 
when the hands are turned backward, prevents the pallets 
leaving the escape wheel. 

SAFETY PINION. -A center pinion which allows the 
barrel to recoil when the mainspring breaks. 

SAPPHIRE FILE. A piece of flat brass to which a 
piece of sapphire, previously flattened is attached by means of 
shellac. It is used for working upon garnet pallets and other 
soft stones. The sapphire is ground upon a diamond mill 
and its surface rendered coarse or fine according to the mill 
used. A strip of copper and diamantine is sometimes used 
instead of sapphire files. 

SAW ARBOR. The saw arbor or chuck, as shown in 
Fig. 172, is made with a projection turned to receive a saw, 

diamond or emery 
lap, etc. They are 
manufactured by the 
various lathe manu- 
F 'G- 172- facturers, though the 

patterns vary somewhat from the illustration here shown. 

SCREWS. Odd sized screws, not to be had from the 
material dealers may be readily made by means of the screw 
plate and rose cutter. The rose cutter is quite a valuable 
adjunct to the lathe, and is fixed to the spindle in the same 




245 SCREWS. 

manner as the chuck, and will be found exceedingly useful 
for quickly reducing pieces of wire for screws, etc., to a 
gauge. For screws, the wire should be of a proper size for 
the screw heads, and a cutter selected with a hole the size of 
the finished screw. The point of the wire is rounded to enter 
the hole of the cutter, against which it is forced by the back 
center of the lathe, the serrated face of the cutter rapidly cut- 
ting the superfluous metal, the part intended for the screw 
passing into the hole in the cutter. Some care is required in 
rounding the point of the wire, for if not done equally all 
around, the screw will not be true to the head. 

To Remove Broken Screws. It sometimes happens 
that a screw gets broken off in a watch plate in such a 
manner that it is impossible to remove it with tools without 
marring the plate. In such an event proceed as follows: put 
enough rain water in a glass tumbler to thoroughly cover the 
plate and add sulphuric acid until the water tastes a sharp sour. 
Place the plate in the solution and allow it to remain a few 
hours, when the screw will partially dissolve and drop out. 
Remove from the solution, wash thoroughly in clean water, 
then in alcohol and dry in saw dust. The solution will not 
injure the brass plate or gilding in the slightest, but care must 
be taken to remove all other screws or cement jewels, previ- 
ous to immersion. 

Any one having an American lathe can, with small expense 
of time and labor, make a small attachment which will easily 
and quickly remove a broken screw from the the plate or 
pillar of any watch. 

Take two common steel watch keys having hardened and 
tempered pipes — size, four or five — having care that the 
squares in each are of the same size and of good depth. 
Cut off the pipes about half an inch from the end; file up one 
of these for about half its length, on three equal sides, to fit 
one of the large split chucks of the lathe. Drill a hole in one 
of the brass centers of the lathe of sufficient size and depth, 
into which insert the other key-pipe, and fasten with a little 
solder. Soften a piece of Stubs' wire, to work easily in the 



SCREWS. 246 

lathe, and turn down for an eighth of an inch from the end to 
a size a little smaller than the broken screw in the plate; fin- 
ish with a conical shoulder, for greater strength, and cross- 
file the end with a fine slot or knife-edge file, that the tool 
may not slip on the end of the broken screw; cut off the wire 
a half inch from the end, and file down to a square that will 
fit closely into one of the key-pipes. Make a second point 
like the first one and fit to the other key-pipe; harden in oil 
polish, and temper to a dark straw color. Fit the brass cen- 
ter into the tail stock. To use, put the tools in the place in 
the lathe, place the broken end of the screw against the end 
of the point in the lathe head; slide up the back center and 
fasten the point firmly against the other end of the screw, 
that it may not slip or turn ; revolve the plate slowly, and the 
broken screw, being held fast between the two points, will 
be quickly removed. To remove a broken pillar screw: 
Place the broken screw against the point in the lathe-head, 
holding the plate firmly with the right hand, the pillar on a 
line with the lathe center; turn the lathe-head slowly back- 
ward with the left hand, and the screw will be removed. 
Should the tool slip on the broken screw, and fail to draw it 
out, drill a hole in the pillar from the lower or dial side, down 
to the screw point, (if the size of the pillar in the plate will 
admit of so doing), and with the second point in the back 
center, remove the screw in the same manner as the plate 
screw in the first process. Five or six sizes of these points 
will be found sufficient for the majority of these breakages 
that may occur. See Screw Extractor. 

To Blue Screws. See Bluing Pan. 

Left-Handed Screws. A screw plate for left-handed 
screws can easily be made by screwing a good piece 
of steel of the desired size into a right-handed screw plate, 
removing, filing down on two sides to leave only a knife edge 
and hardening. Drill hole in steel plate and cut with the 
screw described by turning with reverse or left-handed 
motion. Left-handed screws can be made very successfully 
with this plate. 



247 



SCREW EXTRACTOR. 



Screw Driver. A well made and light screw driver is 
an important tool to the watchmaker. The point should be 
well polished and of a width nearly equal to the diameter of 
the screw head. One of the best form« on the market is the 




Fig. 173. 

Waltham, shown in Fig. 173. It has four different sizes of 
blades which are readily adjusted to position. Screw drivers 
are sometimes made in sets, the various width of blades being 
readily detected while on the bench, as the color of the 
handle of each width is different. 

SCREW EXTRACTOR. The Bullock Screw Extrac- 
tor, shown in Fig. 174, is a simple yet very valuable accessory 
to the watchmaker, who finds he ha* a plate in which a screw 







Fig. 174. 

has been broken off. To use this tool, first fasten it in your 
vise, then bring one end of broken or rusted-in screws against 
screw center and the broken screw 7 head asrainst the tool 



SCREW HEAD CUTTER. 248 

screw driver; turn the washers so as to hold the broken screw 
firmly in place; turn the plate gently, and the broken screw- 
will follow the screw driver point out of the place. It may- 
be necessary* in some instances to turn the screw driver point 
against the broken head with a good deal of force in order to 
start the screw. A little benzine or kerosene applied to the 
screw will help to loosen it. 

SCREW HEAD SINK CUTTER. This tool is 
not kept by material dealers, although a tool which somewhat 
resembles it, known as the countersinker, is. The counter- 
sinker does not have the central pivot for centering up by* 
We sometimes have American watches brought to us with 
the end-stone (cap jewel), broken, and a new one must be put 
in. The jewel being set in brass is held in place by two- 
screws on opposite sides, the screw heads being let in or sunk 
even with the surface, half of the screw head projecting over 
on the end-stone. The end-stones furnished by the 
watch companies are not sunk for these screw heads but are 
round and of the proper diameter. These cutters will cut 
away from the jewel the space to be occupied by the screw 
head in a very few moments, and as perfectly as as you like 

All the American 
companies do not use 
the same diameter of 
Fig. 175. screw head in the 

cock and potance, consequently you will be compelled to make 
a separate tool for the Waltham, Elgin, Hampden, Illinois and 
other makes of watches where the sizes are different. With 
a set of six of these cutters you can fit any American Watch* 
They are easily made and will repay you for the trouble. 

Cut off a piece of wire of the required diameter, about one 
inch long and place it a chuck that fits it snugly, and turn 
one end to a center about forty degrees. Now reverse the 
wire in the chuck, and be sure it is true; select a drill that will 
pass through the screw hole in the cock or potance freely and 
proceed to drill a hole in the center of the end of the wire 
about one-sixteenth of an inch deep. Remove from the lathe 




249 SCREW PLATE 

and with a sharp file and graver proceed to cut a series of 
teeth as equal and even as possible. Use a good strong glass 
while working and be sure you have every tooth sharp and 
perfect, as upon this depends the quick and nice work you 
expect from the tool. When this is well done, proceed to 
temper fairly hard, and polish up the outside to make it look 
workmanlike. Now select a piece of steel pivot wire of a 
size that will almost fit in the hole drilled in the end of the 
tool, and polish down to the proper size to drive in the hole 
tightly. Allow this wire to project about one-sixteenth of an 
inch, taper the point and polish. The tool being completed 
you are ready for work. 

Select an end-stone of a diameter to fit tightly in the cock 
or potance, as may be required; place the hole jewel in 
place and then the end-stone pressed down tightly against the 
hole jewel. Place your cutter in a split chuck that fits true; 
select a small or medium sized drill rest anil place in the 
tail-stock spindle. Hold the cock or potance, with the jewels 
in place, against the drill rest, level, and proceeding to run the 
lathe at a fair speed ; slowly feed the cock or potance to the 
cutter, the projecting pivot in the end of the cutter passing 
through the screw hole and acting as a guide to keep the cut- 
ter in the center of the hole. Caution must be exercised or you 
will cut the recess for the screw heads too deep, as these little 
cutters are very deceiving and cut much faster than you would 
suppose. In fitting an end-stone, select one that is more than 
flush when the jewel hole and end-stone are in the proper 
position, and after sinking the screw head as described turn 
off on the lathe almost flush or level. Make a small dot on 
one side of the end-stone, as a mark or guide in replacing it. 
Remove the end-stone and proceed to polish the top of the 
setting on a plate glass polisher. 

SCREW PLATE. A plate of hard steel in which are 
threaded holes of various sizes for making screw threads. 

SCREW TAP. A tool for producing screw threads 
in holes. 

17 



SECOND HAND REMOVER.250 

SECOND HAND REMOVER AND HOLDER. 

The minuteness of the second-hand makes it very difficult to 
manipulate. The little tool shown in Fig. 176 will be found 
very useful in handling these hands. To use it, raise the 



Fig. 176. 

spring with the thumb, and push the tool along the dial 
astride the arbor; then let go the spring and raise the tool. 
The spring will hold the second hand firmly untill replaced. 
For broaching, hold the tool, spring side down, firmly on 
bench or vise. 

SHELLAC. A resinous substance used extensively by 
watchmakers and jewelers for holding work. Shellac is a 
corruption of Shell-lac. Lac is the original name of the 
resinous product which is exuded from an insect which feeds 
upon the banyan tree. In its natural state it incrusts small 
twigs and is known as slick-lac. It is then broken from the 
wood and boiled in alkaline water and the product, from its 
shape, is called seed-lac. It is then melted and reduced to 
thin flakes, known in commerce as shell-lac or shellac. 

SIDEREAL CLOCK. A clock adjusted to measure 
sidereal time. It usuall}' numbers the hours from o to 24. 
See Time. 

SIDEREAL DAY. The interval of time between two 
successive transits over the same meridian of the vernal equinox, 
or first point of Aries. It is the true period of the earth's 
rotation. See Time. 

SILVER. A soft, white, precious metal, very malleable 
and ductile and capable of taking a high polish. For Silver 
Plating, see Electro- Plating . 

Separating Silver. The silver-holding alloy or metal 
is dissolved in the least possible quantity of crude nitric acid. 
The solution is mixed with a strong excess of ammonia and 



251 SILVER. 

filtered into a high cylinder, provided with a stopper. A 
bright strip of copper, long enough to project beyond the 
liquid, is next introduced, which quickly causes separation of 
pure metallic silver. The reduction is completed in a short 
time, and the reduced silver washed first with some ammo- 
niacal solution and then with distilled water. The more am- 
moniacal and concentrated the solution, the more rapid the 
reduction. The strip of copper should not be too thin, as it is 
considerably attacked, and any little particles which might 
separate from a thin sheet would contaminate the silver. The 
operation is so simple that it seems preferable to all others for 
such operations as the preparation of nitrate of silver from old 
coins, etc. Any accompanying gold remains behind during 
the treatment of the metal or alloy with nitrate acid. Chloride 
of silver, produced by the impurities in the nitric acid is taken 
up by the ammoniacal solution like the copper, and is also 
reduced to the metallic state; and whatever other metal is not 
left behind, oxidized by the nitrate acid, is separated as hydrate, 
(lead bismuth), on treacing with ammonia. Any arseniate 
which may have passed into the ammoniacal solution, is not 
decomposed by the copper. 

To Distinguish Genuine Silver. File or scrape the 
surface of the articles to be tested, rub the exposed portion on a 
touchstone and apply a test water consisting of 32 parts of dis- 
tilled water and 16 parts of chromic acid. Rinse the stone in 
water and if the article is genuine silver a red spot will be left 
upon the stone, but if it is an imitation the mark will be un- 
affected. The finer the quality of the silver the more intense 
will be the red spot. 

Silver Assay with Testing Tube. Place in the tube 
enough of the pulverized mineral to fill one inch of the space, 
and on this pour nitric acid in quantity to occupy two inches 
more, and hold the mixture over the flame until the acid boils. 
The acid will dissolve whatever silver may be present, and 
must be passed through filtering paper to remove extraneous 
matter, and returned to the tube. Next add a few drops of 



SILVER. 252 

water saturated with salt; any silver or lead that may be pres- 
ent will be precipitated in a cloudy form to the bottom. Drain 
off the acid, place the precipitate in the sunlight, and in a few 
minutes, if it contains silver, it will turn to a purple color, and 
may be again liquified by the addition of spirits of ammonia. 
The testing tube is formed of thin glass, about five inches long, 
and less than one inch diameter; bottom and sides of equal 
thickness. Where the tube is lacking, a cup may be used 
instead. 

Silver Assay by Smelting. If no lead is present, mix 
600 grs. of the pulverized ore with 300 grs. carbonate of soda, 
600 grs. of litharge, and 12 grs. charcoal in a crucible; add a 
slight coal of borax over all, put on the furnace, melt, take off, 
give it a few taps to settle the metal, let it cool, and remove 
the button. 

To Clean Silver Plate. The tarnish can be removed 
by dipping the article from one to fifteen minutes — in a pickle 
of the following composition; rain water, 2 gallons, and 
potassa cyanuret y 2 pound; dissolve together, and fill into a 
stone jug or jar, and close tightly. The article after having 
been immersed, must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in 
several waters, then dried with fine, clean sawdust. Tarnished 
jewelry can speedily be restored by this process; but be care- 
ful to thoroughly remove the alkali, otherwise it will corrode 
the goods. 

Cleaning Silverware. Hyposulphate of soda the 
simplest and most effective cleansing material for silverware; 
it operates quickly and is cheap. A rag or a brush moistened 
with the saturated solution of the salt cleanses, without the 
use of cleaning powder, strongly oxidixed silver surfaces 
within a few seconds. 

Cleaning Silver Tarnished in Soldering. Expose to 
a uniform heat, allow it to cool, and then boil in strong alum 
water; or, immerse for a considerable length of time in a 
liquid made of one-half ounce of cyanuret of potassa to one 
pint of rain water, and then brush off with prepared chalk. 



253 SILVER. 

Cleaning Silver Filigree. Anneal your work over a 
Bunsen flame or with a blowpipe, then let grow cold (and this 
is the secret of success), and then put in a pickle of sulphuric 
acid and water, not more than five drops to one ounce of 
water, and let your work remain in it for one hour. If not 
to satisfaction, repeat the process. 

To Frost Silver. To produce a frosted surface upon 
polished silver use cynide of potassium with a brush; the sil- 
ver should not be handled during the process, but held 
between pieces of boxwood or lancewood. The proportion 
should be, i ounce of cynide potassium in i pint of water. 

To Frost Silver. Silver goods may be frosted and 
whitened by preparing a pickle of sulphuric acid i dram, 
water 4 ounces; heat it and immerse the silver articles until 
frosted as desired; then wash off clean, and dry with a soft 
linen cloth, or in fine clean sawdust. For whitening only, a 
small quantity of acid may be employed. 

To Frost Silver. The article has to be carefully an- 
nealed either in a charcoal fire, or with a blowpipe before a 
gas flame, which will oxidize the alloy on the surface, and 
also destroy all dirt and greasy substances adhering to it, and 
then boiled in a copper pan containing a solution of dilute sul- 
phuric acid — of i part of acid to about 30 parts of water. The 
article is then placed in a vessel of clean water, and scratched- 
brushed or scoured with fine sand; after which the annealing 
and boiling-out is repeated, which will in most all cases be 
sufficient to produce the desired result. If a very delicate 
dead surface such as watch dials, etc., is required, the article 
is, before the second annealing, covered with a pasty solution 
of potash and water, and immediately after the annealing 
plunged in clean water, and then boiled out in either sulphuric 
acid solution, or a solution of 1 part cream tartar and 2 parts 
common salt to about 30 parts of water. If the article is of a 
low quality of silver, it is well to add some silver solution, 
such as is used for silvering, to the second boiling-out solution. 




SLIDE REST. 254 

If the article is very inferior silver, the finishing will have to 
be given by immersing it in contact with a strip of zinc in a 
silver solution. 

SLIDE REST. The slide rest is a tool holder to be used 
on a lathe; it is so universally used by all modern watch- 
makers that a full description is superfluous. Fig. 177 is a 
Moseley, and is a fair example of a 
modern slide rest for watchmakers' use. 
The tool holder varies with the different 
makers but the rests proper are all made 
'on the same general principle, that of 
two sliding beds working at right 
fig. 177. angles to one another and carrying a 

tool holder, capable of being raised or lowered or set at any 
desired angle. 

SNAIL. A cam resembling in form a snail, used in the 
striking attachment to clocks. 

SNAILING. The ornamentation of the surface of metals 
by means of circles or bars, sometimes erroneously called 
damaskeening. 

SNAP. A small catch or fastening, as in a bracelet. The 
fastening of one piece of metal to another by springing of the 
edges, as in the bezel of a watch case. 

SNARL. To emboss or raise figures upon metal work by 
driving the metal up from the back with a die or snarling 
iron, as in metal vases. 

SNARLING IRON. An r> shaped steel tool which is 
used in snarling or embossing metal vases, etc. One end of 
the snarling iron is placed in the vise and the shank being 
struck with a hammer, the repercussion of the other end drives 
out the metal. The snarling iron is only used on vases, pitch- 
ers, and like hollow ware. 



255 



SOLDERING. 



SOLDERING. The act of joining two metallic surfaces 
by means of a more fusible metal or metallic cement. Sol- 
ders are commonly divided into two groups known as hard 
solders and soft solders; the former fuse only at a red heat, 
while the latter fuse at low degrees of heat. In hard solder- 
ing it is frequently necessary to bind the parts to be soldered 
together with what is known as binding wire, which is made 
of soft iron, the repair clamps shown in Fig. 165 or soldering 
forceps shown in Fig. 178. The blow pipe is used most ex- 
tensively for soldering, although small soldering irons are 
used on the larger kinds of work. It is of the utmost import- 
ance that the meeting edges of all articles to be soldered be 
scraped or chemically cleaned. While soldering, articles are 
usually placed upon a piece of charcoal, though asbestos or 
pumice stone is better for the purpose. Charcoal emits gases 
from the coal while under the blowpipe which enter into the 
alloy of gold or silver and render it brittle. To prove this, 
reduce a small piece of 10k gold to a liquid form on a piece 
of charcoal, and treat a piece similarly on a piece of asbestos 
or pumice stone, and after allowing each to cool, subject both 
to a heavy pressure and note the difference in their malleability 
and ductility. 

Hard Solders. Under this name very different alloys 
are used, depending upon the metals to be united. The 
following table shows the composition of various hard 
solders which have stood a practical test for various purposes: 



Part Brass. Parts Zinc. Parts Tin. 



Refractory 
Readily Fusible, 
Half White, - 
White, - 
Very Ductile, - 



4.00 

5.00 

12.00 

40.00 

7 8.2 5 



1. 00 
4.00 
5.00 
2.00 

!7- 2 5 



1. 00 
8.00 



Gold Solders. Gold Solders should approach the articles 
to be soldered in both color and fusibility as nearly as possible. 
The following gold solders are in general use: 



SOLDERING. 



256 



Hard solder for 750 fine 
Soft solder for 750 " 

Solder for 583 
Solder for less than 583 " 
Readily Fusible Solder 
Solder for Yellow Gold 



Parts Gold. 


Parts 
Silver 


Parts 
Copper. 


Parts Zinc. 


9.O 


2.0 


I.O 




12.0 


7.0 


3-° 




3-° 


2.0 


1.0 




2.0 


2.0 






11.94 


54-74 


28.17 


5.OI 


1 0.0 


5-° 




I.O 



Silver Solders . The following hard silver solders have 
been thoroughly tested: 





Parts Fine 

Silver. 


Parts 
Copper. 


Parts Brass 


Parts Zinc. 


First 


4 




3 




Second 


2 








Third 


T 9 


1 


10 


5 


Fourth 


57 


28.6 




H-3 



Soft Solder. The soft solder most frequently used con- 
sists of 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead. The following table 
gives the composition of various soft solders with the respec- 
tive melting points* 



Number. 


Parts Tin 


Parts 
Lead. 


Melts at 
Degrees F. 


Number. 


Parts Tin 


Parts 
Lead. 


Melts at 
Deg. F. 


I - - ■ 




2 5 


558° 


7 - - 


^A 


I 


334° 


2 - - - 




10 


54 1 


8 - - 


2 


I 


34° 


3 - " ' 




5 


5l J 


9 - - 


3 


I 


356 


4 




3 


482 


10 - - 


4 


I 


3^5 


5 




2 


441 


1 1 - - 


5 


I 


37* 


6 




1 


37 


12 - - 


6 


1 


380 



Aluminium Solder. The following alloys are recom- 
mended for the purpose; 1. Melt twenty parts of aluminum 
in a suitable crucible, and when in fushion add 80 parts zinc. 
When the mixture is melted, cover the surface with tallow, 



257 SOLDERING. 

and maintain in quiet fusion for some time, stirring occasion- 
ally with an iron rod; then pour into molds. 2. Take 15 
parts of aluminum and 85 parts zinc, or 12 parts of the former 
and 88 parts of the latter, or 8 parts of the former and 92 parts 
of the latter; prepare all of them as specified for No. 1. The 
flux recommended consists of three parts balsam copaiba, 
one of Venetian turpentine, and a few drops of lemon juice. 
The soldering iron is dipped into this mixture. 

Soldering Fluxes. For hard solder use borax rubbed 
to a paste with water on a slate. For soft soldering dissolve 
a small piece of zinc in pure hydrochloric acid until efferves- 
cence ceases. Take out the undissolved zinc after twenty- 
four hours, filter the solution, add Yi its volume of spirits of 
sal-ammoniac and dilute with rain water. This fluid is non- 
corrosive. 

Soft Solder for Smooth Surfaces. Where two smooth 
surfaces are to be soldered one upon the other, you may make 
an excellent job by moistening them with the fluid, and then, 
having placed a sheet of tin foil between them hold them 
pressed firmly together over your lamp until the foil melts. If 
the surface is fitted nicely, a joint may be made in this way so 
close as to be almost imperceptible. The bright looking lead, 
which comes as a lining for tea boxes, is better than tin foil. 

To Dissolve Soft Solder. Nitric acid may be used 
safely for gold not lower than 12k and is very effective. The 
following is suitable for all grades of gold and silver: Green 
copperas 2 oz., saltpeter ioz., reduced to a powder and boiled 
in 10 oz. of water. It will become crystalized on cooling. 
Dissolve these crystals by the addition of 8 parts of spirits of 
salts to each part of crystals, using an earthenware vessel. 
Add 4 parts of boiling water, keep the mixture hot, and 
immerse the article to be operated upon, and the solder will 
be entirely removed without injuring the work. 

Soldering Stone Set Rings. There are various ways 
for doing this, but the following will be found as good as 
any: Take tissue paper and tear it into strips about three 



SOLDERING FORCEPS. 258 

inches wide, twist them into ropes, and then make them very 
wet and wrap the stone with them, passing around the stone 
and through the ring until the center of the ring is a little 
more than half full of paper, always winding very close, and 
then fasten upon charcoal, allowing the stone to project over 
the edge of the charcoal, and solder very quickly. The paper 
will prevent oxidation upon the part of the ring it covers, as 
well as protecting the stone. 

SOLDERING FORCEPS. By the use of this ingeni- 
ous device any article to be repaired can be adjusted in any 
desired position in a much shorter time, and with more accu- 



Fig. 17s. 

racy than by the ordinary process of binding with wire to a 
piece of charcoal. The Crane Patent Soldering Forceps are 
so constructed that any two pieces can be as readily brought 
together as can be done with the ringers, no matter at what 
angle or position you may desire them. Each part works 
independent of the other, and the whole is held securely in 
place by means of a nut, as shown in Fig. 178, at F, and both 
hands being free, charcoal can be held behind the article, 



259 



SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, 



thereby concentrating the heat, the same as when held directly 
upon it. In soft soldering it can be used to great advantage. 
The forceps EE, revolve in parts dd, which are fast- 
ened to arms CC, by means of a hinge joint. The arms CC 
run through the collars bb, so that they can be lengthened or 
shortened, and the forceps raised or lowered as desired. The 
collars bb turn independently of each other on base A, and 
being split the whole is held firmly in position by nut F. See 
also Tweezers. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, The following table shows 
the specific gravities of numerous metals employed in the arts, 
together with their melting points, malleability, ductility, and 
tenacity. 



Metals. 


Specific Gravity 


Melting points. 


Order of 
Mallea- 
bility. 


Order of 


Tena- 


Fahrenhei 1 - 


Centig'de 


Ductility. 


city.* 


Platinum 


21.40 to 21.50 


ir fusible exc 
Oxyhydroger 


ept by the 
blow-pipe 


6 


3 


274 


Gold 


19.25 to 19.50 


20l6° 


U02° 


1 


1 


15°^ 


Mercury 


13.56 to 13.59 












Lead 


11.40 to 1 1.45 


6l2 


322 


7 


9 


27^ 


Silver 


10.47 to 10 -5° 


1873 


IO23 


2 


2 


187 


Bismuth 


9.82 to 9.90 


497 


258 








Copper 


8.89 to 8.96 


1994 


IO9O 


3 


.S 


302 


Nickel 


8.50 to S.60 


2700 


I482 


10 


10 




Iron 


7.77 to 7.80 


2786 


l 5S° 


9 


4 


549 


Tin 


7 2 5 to 7-3° 


442 


228 


5 


8 


345* 


Zinc 


6.80 to 7.20 


773, 


412 


8 


7 


109^ 


Antimony 


6.75 to 6.80 


a little be- 
low red heat 










Arsenic 


5.70 to 5.90 


volatilizes 
before fusing 










Aluminum 


2.56 to 2.60 


I3OO 


705 


4 


6 


300 



SPECTACLE TOOL. Nearly every watchmaker 
knows what a troublesome thing it is to repair spectacle 
frames. When soldered, the solder will run through and fill 
the groove for the glass, and it is no easy matter to cut the 
solder out of the groove with a graver. The graver will 
slip, scratch and mar the frames in spite of the greatest care. 

*Number of lbs. sustained by 0.767 of a line in diameter in wires of 
the various metals. 



SPECTACLE TOOL 260 

This spectacle tool will cut out the groove in gold, silver, steel 
or any other spectacle frames in a moments time, smoothly 
and perfectly. This tool is not for sale by material dealers, but 
can be made by any ingenious watchmaker. Take a piece of 
Stubs' polished steel wire, say number forty, by steel wire 
gauge, and one and a fourth inches long. Insert the wire in 
a chuck in your lathe, allowing the end to project about one- 
fourth inch; proceed to turn both ends to a center, as shown 
in Fig. 179. Select two female centers of the proper size; 
place one in the taper chuck of your lathe and the other in 
the tail stock spindle; fasten a dog on the piece of wire, and 
proceed to turn the wire even and straight throughout its 
entire length. Remove from the lathe, select a split chuck 
that will fit snugly, place the wire in the chuck, allowing 



Fig. 179. 

about three-eighths of an inch to project; remove the T 
rest of your lathe, and insert in its stead a filing fixture. 
By the aid of the index on the lathe pulley and the filing 
fixture, proceed to square the end of the wire, (about one- 
fourth inch), of a size to fit in an American ratchet wheel 
Now select two ratchets of the same thickness and size 
and place them on the square cut on the wire. Proceed to 
round up the balance of the square not occupied by the 
ratchets, and with the screw plate cut a nice full thread on 
the end up to the square. Now cut off a small piece of 
steel wire, the same in diameter as the body of the tool, 
true it in your lathe chuck and drill a hole in the centre 
about one-eighth inch deep. With a screw tap, of the 
proper size to fit the screw on the end of the shaft, which 
is now a small spindle, tap a good thread in the hole. 
This short piece is intended for a nut. With a graver cut 
it off to the desired length, replace the two ratchets and 
screw on the nut; replace the spindle in your lathe and 



261 



SPLIT SECONDS. 



turn up the nut round and true. While in the lathe, square 
half the length of the nut on two sides only. This is intended 
for a grab or hold for your pliers in removing the nut from 
the little spindle. You can vary the width of the cut by 
using two or three ratchets as is desired. In order to make 
the groove rounding, the shape of the spectacle glass, hold an 
oil stone to the edge of the ratchets while revolving, which 
will round them very slightly. American ratchet wheels 
make good cutters and any width of groove can be cut. 
When the teeth get dull they can easily be sharpened or new 
wheels can be substituted. With this tool you can cut the 
solder out of spectacle frames in a very few minutes. It will 
also prove useful in enlarging spectacle frames, in fitting new 
lenses. 

SPLIT SECONDS. A variety of double chronograph 
in which there are two center-seconds hands. 

SPRUNG OVER. A watch in which the hairspring is 
attached to the staff above the balance. 

STAFF. An axis or arbor. 

STAKE. An anvil. To fasten by 
means of a stake. 

STAKING TOOL. A tool 
needed by every watchmaker, consist- 
ing of a shifting table or stake, around 
which holes of various sizes are arranged 
in a circle, so that any desired hole 
may be brought under a suitable punch 
moving in a vertical holder. Usually 
twenty-four tempered steel punches and 
four stumps are provided, which will 
be found sufficient to cover all the 
fig. iSo. operations in the ordinary run of 

watch repairs, and the ingenious workman can from time to 
time add to these by making punches in his spare moments, if 
he finds from experience that he is in need of punches of a 
different shape. Fig. 1 80 is a fair example of this tool. 




STAKING TOOL. 



262 




STAKING TOOL ANVIL AND SCREW 
HOLDER. Smith's patent staking tool anvil and screw 
holder, shown in Fig. 1S1, will be found a very handy tool 

for removing and putting on 
rollers, for putting hairspring 
collet on balance staff, or for 
it It 9 4 § 8 ^^ riveting in bushings. The 

Fig. iSi. plain staking block or anvil 

is usually made of a solid piece of polished steel, in the form 
of a cube, or circular as in Fig. 1S2. The example shown has 
a reversible center hub which makes it valuable for putting 
on hands, etc. 

STAR WHEELS. The wheel of the stop work which 
is pivoted to the barrel and also known as the Maltese cross. 

STEADY PINS. Pins used to secure two pieces of 
metal in relative positions, as a bridge and plate. 

STEEL. Iron when combined with a small portion of 
carbon. The varities of steel are very great. Puddled steel 
is made from pig iron by a modification of the puddling pro- 
cess. Cast steel is made from wrought iron or blister steel by 
mixing it with 
powdered char- 
coal, after which 
it is melted in a 
crucible, cast into 
ingots and rolled 
or hammered into 
plates or bars. Blis- 
ter Steel is made 
from wrought iron 
by interlaying it 
with charcoal and 
keeping it at a high temperature for a number of days. 
Bessemer steel is made from the liquid cast iron as it comes 
from the smelting furnace by blowing air into it, thus burning 
out a portion of the carbon. 




263 STEEL. 

To Anneal Steel. There are nearly as many methods 
of annealing as there are workmen. The commonest methods 
are as follows: Heat to a dull red, bury in warm iron filings 
or ashes, and allowing the article to cool very gradually. 
Another method is to heat the piece as slowly as possible, and 
when at a low red heat put it between two pieces of dry board 
and screw them up tightly in a vise. The steel burns its way 
into the wood, and on coming together around it they form 
a practically air-tight charcoal bed. Brannt gives the follow- 
ing method which he says will make steel so soft that it can 
be worked like copper: Pulverize beef bones, mix them with 
equal parts of loam and calves' hair and stir the mixture into 
a thick paste with water. Apply a coat of this to the steel 
and place it in a crucible, cover this with another, fasten the 
two together with wire and close the joint hermetically with 
clay. Then put the crucible in the fire and heat slowly. 
When taken from the fire let it cool by placing it in ashes. 
On opening the, crucible the steel will be found so soft that 
it can be engraved like copper. 

To Anneal Small Steel Pieces. Place the articles 
from which you desire to draw the temper into a common 
iron clock key. Fill around it with brass or iron filings, and 
then plug up the open end with a steel, iron or brass plug, 
made to fit closely. Take the handle of the key with your 
plyers and hold its pipe into the blaze of a lamp till red hot, 
then let it cool gradually. When sufficiently cold to handle, 
remove the plug, and you will find the article with its temper 
fully drawn, but in all other respects just as it was before. 
The reason for having the article thus plugged up while 
passing it through the heating and cooling process is, that 
springing always results from the action of changeable currents 
of atmosphere. The temper may be drawn from cylinders, 
staffs, pinions, or any other delicate pieces by this mode with 
perfect safety. 

Harding and Tempering Steel. The process of heat- 
ing steel to a red heat and immediately chilling it is the same 



264 STEEL, 

among all workmen, but the agents employed for chilling are 
very numerous. The receipts here given are from various 
sources, and the reader must adopt the one which he finds on 
trial, is the best adapted to his wants. 

In all cases the object should be heated to a red heat before 
plunging. If an object to be hardened is long and slender, it 
should invariably be inserted in the hardening compound end- 
wise, otherwise it will come out warped and distorted. The 
same rule applies to thin or flat objects. A preparation is 
used in hardening, consisting of one teaspoonful of wheat 
flour, two of salt and four of water. The steel to be hardened, 
is to be heated sufficiently, dipped into the mixture, to be 
coated therewith, then raised to a red glow, and dropped into 
cold soft water. Another method is to raise the object to the 
required heat and then drop it into a mixture of ten parts mut- 
ton suet, two parts salammoniac, five parts resin and thirty- 
five parts olive oil. Oil, tallow, beeswax, and resin are also 
employed for hardening. If an intense brittle hardness is 
desirable drop the object into mercury or nitric acid. In heat- 
ing very small or thin objects, they should be placed between 
two thin pieces of charcoal and the whole brought to the re- 
quired heat. In this way you avoid uneven heating and 
hence it will be uniformly tempered. When it is desirable to 
harden an article without discoloring its surface, it should be 
placed in a metal tube or bowl of a clay pipe, and surrounded 
with charcoal that has been previously heated to expel all 
moisture, and when raised to the proper heat the whole 
should be immersed in the hardening liquid. 

Mat for Steel. The article to be treated must first 
be ground flat and free from scratches in the usual man- 
ner. When this is accomplished take oilstone powder, mix 
it with oil and then add a little bluestone powder. Grinding 
is performed best upon a composition or iron plate, or a file of 
the same material; glass is not as well suited for the purpose, 
A large quantity of grinding powder and oil should be used. 
Very hard articles take a good mat grinding with difficulty, 
and whenever possible it is advisable to anneal them blue. 



STEEL. 



265 



Do not press too hard in grinding; the small grains of oil- 
stone should assume a rolling motion whereby they will to a 
certain extent, wear hollows with their sharp edges in the 
surface of the steel, all of which together will impart the hand- 
some, mat, appearance. If too much pressure is brought to 
bear, and the grinding material is too dry, it will cake on the 
steel and produce the disagreeable scratched surface so often 
seen. 

The quantity of bluestone necessary for grinding can be 
scraped off from a large piece, after which the scrapings must 
be thoroughly crushed. The oilstone powder must not be too 
fine and should be of uniform grain. The proportions are I 
part of bluestone to 4 of oilstone powder. 



Tempering. Before tempering, the surface of the object 
must be thoroughly cleaned and freed from grease by the 
application of oilstone dust, emery, or some like scouring 
agent. The object should not be handled with the fingers 
after cleaning, or it will be difficult to obtain the requisite tint* 
The following table by Stodart will be valuable to the student: 



I. — 


43°° F - 


Very Pale Straw Yellow, - 


220 C 


2 


450 F. 


A Shade Darker Yellow, - 


*35°C 


3-— 


47°° F. 


Darker Straw Yellow - 


245 c 


4-— 


490 F. 


Still Darker Straw Yellow, - 


2 55° ^ 


5 — 


5°o° F. 


Brown Yellow, ... - 


260 C 


6.— 


520- F. 


Yellow tinged with Purple, 


270 c 


7. — 


530- F. 


Light Purple, ----- 


275°C 


8.— 


55o° F. 


Dark Purple, - . - 


290 c 


9.— 


57°° F. 


Dark Blue, 


3 oo°C 


10. — 


59°° F. 


Paler Blue, 


310 c 


11. — 


6io° F. 


Still Paler Blue, 


3 20°C 


12. — 


630 F. 


Light Bluish Green, 


335° C 



After letting an object down to the required color it should 
be allowed to cool gradually, and no artificial means employed 
to hasten the cooling. A piece of steel may be let down to 
the same color several times without in any way injuring it or 
altering its properties. Tempering of small articles is per- 
formed satisfactorily by means of the bluing pan. (See 
18 



STEEL. 



266 



Fig. 34). Small articles are also tempered by placing them in 
a vessel, say a large spoon, covering them with oil and heat- 
ing them to the requisite degree. This is a favored method 
of tempering balance staffs and similar articles. The temper 
is usually judged by the color of the smoke; Saunier gives 
the following rule: When smoke is first seen to rise the tem- 
per is dark yellow, (or No. 2). Smoke more abundant and 
darker, (No. 5). Black smoke still thicker, (No 7). Oil takes 
fire when lighted paper is presented to it at No. 9. After 
this the oil takes fire of itself and continues to burn. If the 
whole of the oil is allowed to burn away No. 12 is reached. 

The Color of Steel at various degrees of temperature. 

The following table gives the temperature corresponding to 
the various colors of steel when heated. 



2. 


980 F. 
1290 F. 


Incipient Red. 
Dull Red. 


5^5° c. 
700 c. 


3- 
4- 

I 

7- 


1470 F. 
1650 F. 
1830 F. 
2010 F. 
2190 F. 


Incipient Cherry Red. 
Cherry Red. 
Clear Cherry Red. 
Deep Orange. 
Clear Orange. 


800 c. 

900 c. 
1000 c. 
1 100 c. 
1200 c. 


8. 
9. 


2370 F. 
2 55° F - 


White. 
Bright White. 


1300 c. 
1400 c. 



Combined Hardening and Tempering. M. Caron, 
with a view to combining the two operations of hardening 
and tempering, suggested that the temperature of the water 
used for hardening, be heated to a pre-determined degree. 
Thus the requisite temper may be given to gun-lock springs 
by heating the water in which they are hardened to 55° C, 
or 130 F. 

To Work Hard Steel. If steel is rather hard under the 
hammer, when heated to the proper cherry red, it may be 
covered with salt and hammered to about the shape desired. 
More softness can then be obtained, if required to give a 
further finish to the shape, by sprinkling it with a mixture of 



267 STEEL. 

salt, blue vitriol, sal-ammoniac, saltpeter and alum; make 
cherry red again, sprinkle with this mixture, and hammer 
into shape. This process may be repeated until entirely 
finished. When ready, the steel is hardened in a solution of 
the same mixture. This method is recommended by promi- 
nent workers. 

To Remove Rust. Kerosene oil, (refined petroleum), 
or benzine are the best agents for the removal of rust, where 
the object is not pitted. When pitted, however, it can only 
be removed by mechanical means such as scouring with emery 
powder and oil. 

To Prevent Rust. Rub the article with a mixture of 
lime and oil, or a mixture of equal parts of carbolic acid and 
olive oil, or with plumbago. 

Anti-rust Varnish for Steel. The rusting of steel and 
iron tools and instruments is very perfectly prevented by coat- 
ing them with a varnish made by dissolving I part of white 
wax in 15 parts benzine, and applying with a brush. The 
very thin layer of wax forms a perfect covering for bright 
tools and when desired is very easily removed. 

Browning or Bronzing for Steel. Aqua fortis and 
sweet spirits nitre, each half an ounce, sulphate copper 2 
ounces, water 30 ounces, tincture muriate of iron 1 ounce. Mix. 

To Protect Steel From Rust. Immerse in a solution 
of carbonate of potash for a few minutes and it will not 
rust for years, not even when exposed to damp atmosphere. 

To Temper Small Steel Articles. The tempering of 
small drills, for drilling holes in arbors, staffs, etc., which we 
find are very hard and difficult to perforate, may be effected 
in the following manner. After having filed the drill to its 
proper size (being careful not to flatten the cutting face), you 
then warm it moderately, not allowing it to become red, and 
run it into borax. The drill is thus coated over with a crust 
of borax and secluded from the air. Now it may be hardened 



STEEL. 268 

by heating it only cherry red ; after this it is inserted into a piece 
of borax, or what in better still, plunged it into mercury ; tak- 
ing care not to breathe the mercury fumes. Drills prepared 
in this way, without being brittle, will become exceedingly 
hard and the watchmaker will be enabled to drill articles which 
could not otherwise be perforated with a drill. Do not use 
broken broaches to make your drills as the steel in them is 
often burned, rendering the metal unfit for use in small tools. 
In order to make the quality of your drill a certainty, always 
take a new piece of round steel for the purpose. 

To Harden Steel in Petroleum. According to B. Mor- 
gossy, the articles to be hardened are first heated in a char- 
coal fire, and, after thoroughly rubbing with ordinary wash- 
ing soap, heated to a cherry red. In this condition they are 
plunged into petroleum; ignition of the petroleum need not 
be feared if no flame is near at hand. Articles hardened by 
this method show no cracks, do not warp if plunged endwise, 
and after hardening remain nearly white, so they can be 
blued without further preparation. 

Hardening Liquids. If water is used for hardening, 
32 F. will be found about right for the sized articles hardened 
by watchmakers and if the article is very small, ice may be 
added to the water. A solution composed of 1 quart of 
water, \y[ lbs. of sal-ammoniac, 10 oz. of refined borax, 1 j^ 
ozs. of red wine, is used extensively for fine cutlery. A mix- 
ture of 1 lb. of resin, 3 ozs. of lard, y 2 lb. train oil and y 2 oz. 
of assafoetida is said to be excellent for fine steel work. 

Directions for Plunging When Hardening. Thin 
articles, as steel plates or articles of small diameter, such as 
drills, should always be plunged into the hardening compound, 
end or edge foremost to avoid warping. If an article is 
thicker on one side than the other, as a knife blade, the thick 
side should enter the compound first. Heat the article only 
as far as you wish to harden it and immerse it as far as it has 
been made red hot. 



969 STOP WORK. 

Tempering" by Electricity. Watch springs have of late 
years been successfully tempered with the aid of electricity. 
The steel ribbon is passed through a bath of oil and an elec- 
tric current of sufficient strength to keep it at the proper heat 
is passed through the ribbon. The heating is thus effected 
without contact with the atmosphere and the spring is not 
liable to blister as in ordinary methods. The temper is drawn 
in the same manner and the heat can be controlled to a nicety 
and is uniform throughout. The spring is then finished by 
means of rolls. 

Glass Polisher for Steel. French plate glass ground 
on one side makes a good polisher for flat work. A piece 
four inches square, nicely finished on the edge, is about the 
right size. 

Tempering Magnets. M. Ducoetet uses the following 
process for temperiug and magnetizing steel to be used as 
magnets. Two soft iron pole pieces are placed in the bottom 
of a water tight vessel and are connected with the poles of a 
powerful electro-magnet. The vessel is partially filled with 
water, and oil is poured into the vessel, which floats upon the 
surface of the water. The red hot bar is then passed through 
the liquids and comes in contact with the magnets. This 
softens the steel without depriving it of its power of being 
magnetized. 

To Engrave Name on Steel Tools. Coat the tool 
or article, if made of iron or steel, with a thin layer of wax, 
draw the name, initials or design through the wax, exposing 
the metal, and place the tool in a mixture oi 6 parts by weight 
of water and i part of sulphuric acid. In a few hours re- 
move, and if etched sufficiently, wash in clean water and dis- 
solve the wax by heat. 

STOP WORK. The mechanism which prevents the 
overwinding of a timepiece. 

STRAIGHT LINE LEVER. That form of lever 
escapement in which the escape wheel arbor, pallet and bal- 
ance staff are all planted in a straight line, as in Fi~, 183. 



STUD. 



270 



STUD. A small piece of metal which is slotted to receive 
the outer coil of the hair spring. 

SWEEP SECONDS. A movement in which a long 
seconds hand moves from the center of the dial instead of at 
the bottom, as in chronographs and split seconds watches. 




<Z=i£ 



Fig. i S3. 

TABLE. The roller of a lever escapement that carries 
the impulse pin. 

TAILSTOCK. The sliding block or support in a lathe 
that carries the tailscrew. 




Fig. 184. 

Half Open Tailstock. The half open tailstock shown 
Fig. 184, is cut away so that the spindles can be laid 



271 



TABLE. 



in, instead of being passed through the holes. This fixture 
will be found exceeding convenient when several spindles 

are to be used for 
drilling,counterbor- 
ing and chamfering. 

Screw Tailstock. 

This attachment is 
very convenient for 
heavy drilling, the 
spindle being moved 
by a screw with 
hand wheel attached. 

Kio. 185. 

Traverse Spindle Tailstock. This attachment shown 
in Fig. 186, will be found very convenient for stright 
drilling. Where the watchmaker has a great deal of drilling 
to do he will find this attachment invaluable. 





TESTING NEEDLES. Small strips of steel with 
gold points usually running from 4k. to 20k. inclusive, and 
used in conjunction with a touchstone for determining the 
quality of gold. The gold to be tested is first rubbed upon 
the touchstone, and the needle which most closely aproximates 
to it in quality, in the judgment of the operator is also rubbed 
upon the stone. The two marks are then treated with nitric 
acid and the difference in color indicates the difference in 
quality of the two marks. See Touchstone. 



THIRD WHEEL. 



272 



THIRD WHEEL. The wheel in the train of a watch 
which lies between the center and fourth wheels. 

THREE-QUARTER PLATE. A watch in which 
enough of the upper plate is cut away to allow of the balance 
vibrating on a level with the plate. 

TIME. The measure of duration. A particular period of 
duration. Time is measured by the interval between two 
successive transits of a celestial body over the same meridian ; 

if measured by the 
sun it is called solar 
time, or if by a star 
sidereal time. 



Absolute Time. 

Time irrespective of 
local standards or 
epochs; time reck- 
oned for all places 
from some one com- 
mon epoch; as, all 
spectators see a lunar 
eclipse at the same 




Fig. 1S7. 
instant of absolute time. — Webster. 



Apparent Time. Time as reckoned by the sun; the 
instant of the transit of the sun's center over the meridian 
constituting 12 o'clock. 

Astronomical Time. Mean solar time reckoned by 
counting the hours continuously up to twenty-four from one 
noon up to the next. — Webster. 

Civil Time- The reckoning of time for the common pur- 
poses of life. The division of time into years, months, days, 
hours and seconds. 

Cidereal Time. Time regulated by the transit, over the 
meridian of a place of the first point of Aries, or vernal 
equinox, and chiefly used in astronomical observations. 



273 



TIME. 



The sidereal day is 3 m., 56 s. shorter than the mean solar 
day. The pendulum of a clock to show sidereal time must 
be a trifle shorter than that of one used to show mean time, both 
clocks having the same train. On or about the 15th of April 
the two clocks would agree, but from that time on there 
would be a divergence of 3 m., 56 s. per day. In the absence 
of a transit instrument and a table giving the right ascension 
of particular stai«s, Britten advises the selection of a window 
having a southern aspect, from which a chimney or a steeple 
or any other fixed point may be seen. To the side of the 
window attach a thin plate of brass having a small hole in it, 
in such a manner that by looking through the hole towards 
the edge of the elevated object, some of the fixed stars may 
be seen; the progress of one of these being watched, the 





Stars Gain 


Days. 


Stars Gain 


Days. 
















Hrs. 


Min. 


Sec. 




Hrs. 


Min. 


Sec. 


I 


O 


3 


56 


1 I 


O 


43 


1 5 


2 


O 


7 


5 2 


12 


O 


57 


11 


3 


O 


1 1 


48 


J 3 


O 


5 1 


/ 


4 


O 


J 5 


44 


H 


O 


55 


3 


5 


O 


l 9 


39 


l 5 


O 


5* 


5* 


6 


O 


2 3 


35 


16 


I 


2 


54 


7 


O 


2 7 


3 1 


17 


I 


6 


5 ? 


8 


O 


3 1 


27 


18 


1 


10 


46 


9 


O 


35 


2 3 


l 9 


I 


H 


42 


10 


O 


39 


l 9 


20 


1 


iS 


3* 



instant it vanishes behind the fixed point a signal is made to 
a person observing the clock, who then notes the exact time 
at which the star disappears, and on the following night the 
same star will vanish behind the same object 3 m., 56 s. sooner. 
If a clock mark 10 h. when the observation is made, when the 
star vanishes the following night it should indicate 3 m., 56 s. 
less than 10 h. If several cloudy nights have rendered it im- 
possible to compare the clock with the star, it will then be 
necessary to multiply 3 m., 56 s. by the number of days that 
have elapsed since the observation, and the product deducted 



TIMING. 274 

from the hour the clock then indicates gives the time the 
clock should show. The same star can only be observed dur- 
ing a few weeks, for as it gains nearly a half hour a week it 
will, in a short time, come to the meridian in broad daylight 
and become invisible; to continue the observation, another 
star must be selected. In making the observation, care must 
be taken that a planet is not observed instead of a star: Mars, 
Jupiter, and Saturn, are those most likely to occasion this 
error, more especially Saturn, which from being the most dis- 
tant of the three resembles a star of the first magnitude. The 
planets may, however, be easily distinguished, for being com- 
paratively near the earth, they appear larger than the stars; 
their light also is steady because reflected, while the fixed 
stars scintillate and have a twinkling light. A sure means of 
distinguishing between them is to watch a star attentively for 
a few nights; if it change its place with regard to the other 
stars it is a planet. 

Solar Time. Sun time. Time marked by the diurnal 
revolution of the earth with regard to the sun. A mean solar 
day is the average length of all the solar days in the year. 
The difference between true and mean time is called the equa- 
tion of time. There are only four days in the year when the 
apparent and mean time are the same, and the equation of 
time nothing. These are December 24th, April 15th, June 
15th, and August 31st. Between December 2.4th and April 
15th, and between June 15th and August 31st, the apparent is 
always before the mean time, whilst in the remaining inter- 
vals it is later. 

TIMING. See Adjustment. 

TIMING SCREWS. Quarter screws of a compensa- 
tion balance. 

TOUCHSTONE. A piece of black basaltic rock, 
obtained chiefly from Silesia and used for testing the quality 
of gold. The piece of gold or metal to be tested is drawn 
upon the surface of the touchstone and the streak left is 



275 TRAIN. 

treated with nitric acid. Nitric acid eats away the streak if it 
is brass or any similar alloy, while if gold the alloy in the 
gold only is attacked. Testing needles of known alloy are 
then rubbed on the surface of the touchstone and treated with 
the acid and a comparison made. See Testing Needles. 

TRAIN. The toothed wheels in a watch or clock that 
connect the barrel or fusee with the escapement. In a going- 
barrel watch the teeth around the barrel drive the center 
pinion, to which is attached the center wheel; the center wheel 
drives the third wheel pinion, which carries the third wheel; 
the third wheel drives the fourth wheel pinion, on which the 
fourth wheel is mounted; the fourth wheel drives the escape 
pinion, to which the escape wheel is fixed. The number of 
teeth in the various wheels and pinions is determined by the 
following considerations: The center aibor to which the 
minute hand is fixed always turns once in an hour, the fourth 
wheel, to the arbor of which the seconds hand is fixed turns 
once in a minute, j-o that the product obtained by multiplying 
together the number of teeth in the center and third wheels 
must be 60 times the product obtained by multiplying together 
the numbers of third and fourth pinions. Two other points 
may be settled before deciding the rest of the train. 1st. The 
number of turns the barrel makes in 30 hours, which is the 
time allowed from winding to winding. Four turns would 
be a suitable number, and in that case the barrel would con- 
tain 71^ times the number of teeth in the center pinion. 2nd. 
The number of vibrations made by the balance in an hour. If 
18,000 be decided on, then, assuming the escape wheel to have 
the usual number of 15 teeth, the escape pinion must make 
10 rotations a minute, and the fourth wheel must have 10 
times as many teeth as the escape pinion. The barrel teeth 
and center pinion, which have considerable pressure to bear, 
must be of adequate strength, but the pitch of the teeth and 
size of the wheels are gradually diminished as the train nears 
the escapement. In the last wheels of a train, small and light 
wheels are especially needed, so that they get quickly into 
motion directly the escapement is unlocked, and are stopped 



TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. ^76 



with but little shock when the escapement is locked again. 
The remarks on the train of a going-barrel watch apply 
equally to the going train of a clock. The considerations 
which guide in deciding the numbers for the striking train of 
a clock are the number of blows to be struck from winding 
to winding, the fall of the weight or turns of the barrel or 
fusee, as the case may be, and the number of pins in the pin 
wheel. English lever watches usually have either a 16,200 
or an 18,000 train. American and Swiss watches, both lever 
and horizontal, have 18,000 trains as a rule. — Britten. 

TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. A telescope mounted 
at right angles to a horizontal axis. Used in connection with 
a clock or watch for obtaining the time of transit of a heavenly 
body over the meridian of a place. 

TRAVERSE SPINDLE GRINDER. This tool 
willbe found very useful for grinding cutters, lathe centers, 
pump centers, reamers, counter sinks, squaring up barrel 

arbors after hardening, or 

any hardened steel tool. 

In the hand of an ingenious 

workman, it will be found 

exceedingly useful, as by 

Fig. 18S. its aid a great variety of 

work can be performed that cannot be accomplished without 

it. Fig. 188, is the Mosely pattern, and is designed to attach 

to the slide rest. 

TURNS. A small dead-center lathe used but little in this 
country. 

TWEEZERS. The watchmaker will do well to pur- 
chase tweezers that are made of non-magnetic material as 





Fig. 189. 

they are no more expensive than ordinary ones of good 
make. Steel tweezers often become magnetized and by their 



277 TWO PIN ESCAPEMENT. 

use you convey the magnetism to the delicate parts of a move- 
ment. There are several makes of non-magnetic tweezers 




upon the market all of which possess points of excellence. 
Soldering tweezers are made similar to Fig. 190, with hawk 
bill, for holding work while hard or soft soldering. See also 
Soldering Forceps, 

TWO PIN ESCAPEMENT. A variety of the lever 
escapement having one small gold pin in the lever and two in 
the table, and the unlocking and impulse actions are divided 
between them. 

UNIVERSAL HEAD. The universal head, shown in 
Fig. 191, .has entirely superseded the clumsy universal mandril 




Fig. 191. 

in this country. It is more accurate, less clumsy and compli- 
cated and will perform the same work. The face plate is 3^ 
inches in diameter, but by the use of two crescent-shaped slots, 
it will hold anything in size and shape of watchwork. The 
pump center is operated from the back by the rubber knob 



VERGE ESCAPEMENT. 



27^ 




workman may 

In the Mosely 

191, these holes 

Fig. 192 shows 



Fig. 192. 



and can be used either with or without a spring. The jaws, 
which will pass the center, are held in position on face plate 
by springs, and are fastened from the back. Peep holes are 
provided in these heads in order that the 
examine the back of the work at all times, 
head, shown in Fig. 
are of taper form, 
a universal face plate to be used on 
chuck in lathe. It is smaller and less 
expensive than the universal head 
and answers very well for some 
work, but cannot be recommended 
very highly as it is not as accurate. 
The pump center is used to center 
from the backanyobjectconfinedinthe 
jaws, but it sometimes becomes necessary to mount the object 
by means of wax upon a plate and hold the plate in the jaws. 
In such a case the work must necessarily be centered from the 
front. This can be done accurately by means of a piece of 
pegwood, as ordinarily performed on the lathe, by placing 
the point in the central hole and the pegwood resting on the 
T rest, and observing if the free end of the pegwood remains 
stationary. See also Centering Tool or Indicator. 

VERGE ESCAPEMENT. A recoil escapement in 
which the pallet axis is set at right angles to the axis of the 
escape wheel. The verge, the earliest probably of all the 
escapements, is shown in the engraving. It has no pretensions 
to accuracy, says Britten, in presence of such escapements as 
the lever and chronometer. 

The balance in this escapement has no free arc, and its 
vibration is limited to about no° each way. The escape 
wheel, or "crown wheel," as it is called, has either 11 or 13 
teeth, and in the plan of the watch its arbor lies horizontally. 
The balance staff, or verge, is made as small as proper strength 
will allow, and planted close to the wheel so that the tips of 
the teeth just clear it. The pallets, which form part of the 
verge, are placed at an angle of 95 or ioo° with each other. 
The latter angle is generally preferred. 



•279 VERGE ESCAPEMENT 

The drawing is a plan of the escape wheel and verge as thev 
lie in the watch. The width of the pallets apart, from center 
to center, is equal to the diameter of the wheel. A tooth of 
the escape wheel is just leaving the upper pallet (c); as it 
drops off, the under tooth will reach the root of the lower 
pallet (d), but the motion of the verge will not be at once 
reversed. The escape wheel will recoil until the impetus of 
the balance is exhausted. The teeth of the wheel are under- 
cut to free the face of the pallet during the recoil. 

Generally in French, and occasionally in English watches, 
the pallets are even more open. An increased vibration of 
the balance and less recoil can be obtained with a larger angle, 
but to get sufficient impulse the verge must be planted closer 
to the wheel. This necessitates cutting away a part of the 
body of the verge to free the wheel teeth. Then, as the 




a. Escape Wheel. b. Verge. c d. Pallets 



wheel tooth impinges on the pallet almost close to the centre 
of the verge, there is more friction on the pivots, and the 
wheel tooth gets so small a leverage that the escapement often 
sets, unless the balance is very light. On the other hand, 
with the opening between the pallets only 90 , as it is in 
many English watches, the vibration of the balance is too 
small and the recoil too great. An opening of about ioo° 
avoids the drawbacks incidental to the two extremes, and 
mav therefore be adopted with advantage. 



VERNIER CALIPER. 280 

To ensure good performance the body or arbor of the verge 
should be upright, and when in the frames and viewed 
through the follower potance hole should be seen crossing the 
balance wheel hole of the dovetail. The position of the eye 
should be in a line with the arbor of the balance wheel pinion 
when in the follower; the drops of the pallets equal, and the 
balance wheel teeth true. 

VERNIER CALIPER. See Gauge. 

VERTICAL ESCAPEMENT. An escapement in 
which the escape wheel is at right angles to the balance staff 
or pallet axis. 

VIENNA LIME. A pure anhydrous lime obtained from 
Vienna. It is extensively used for final polishing purposes, 
particularly in watch factories. The action of Vienna lime 
is different from most other polishing agents for the effect is 
not produced, as in the case of rouge, by simple abrasion, for 
unless the lime be used while it is slacking, the result will not 
be satisfactory. The material should therefore be kept in 
air-tight bottles, and only enough for immediate use taken out 
at one time. Take a small lump from the bottle, slightly 
moisten with water and break down with any clean tool. 
Spread the lime paste on a box-wood slip and apply to the 
article to be polished, using quick strokes. 

WATCH. A small time-piece to be carried in the pocket. 

Cleaning and Repairing. As the movement is taken 
down, note should be taken of any needed repairs or altera- 
tions, either in the watch or case. See that th£ movement is 
tight in the case and that the stem turns easily. Examine 
movement carefully with eye glass and if a Swiss bridge 
movement, examine the depths of the wheels, see if minute 
wheel pinion touches the dial, and if balance pivots have too 
much side shake. Try the side shake of a Swiss bridge with 
a pair of fine and light tweezers, see if the guard and bank- 
ings are correct. In a great many Swiss watches and also 
English watches, the jewel pin is too small for the fork, and 
often it does not enter properly. Memorize these little things 



28] WATCH. 

as you go along, and repair them in this regular order. After 
examining the escapement, let the mainspring down; remove 
the hands first, after taking the movement out of case with a 
modern tool made for that purpose, that does not interfere 
with the dial. 

Now remove dial, and notice if it fits right; if the hand 
arbors come in the center of the holes. Oftimes this can be 
corrected by bending the feet with a pair of flat pliers, so the 
edge of the dial will correspond with the movement, and the 
hand arbors. Sometimes in American watches, the screws do 
not reach the dial feet; alter this by turning the shoulders off 
in lathe, so they will go further in. If the pins, (when the 
dial is pinned on,) are too high above the plate, fill them with 
a little pin and soft solder, and drill or punch new holes in the 
proper place. When you put a new dial on a Swiss watch, 
where the feet do not correspond to the holes, cut off the feet 
of new dial and file or grind the enamel flat around the feet 
and grind the enamel away with an emery wheel, where the 
new feet are to go. Now take a piece of copper wire, long 
enough for both feet, and the proper thickness, put it in lathe 
and hollow out the ends with a graver, so it will hardsolder 
flat on an old piece of dial copper about three-sixteenths of an 
inch round. If too large put it in the lathe by the foot and 
turn it off. Now have feet prepared for new dial; take a lit- 
tle dissolved shellac and put it on the bottom of each of the 
dial feet and put the feet to their places in the movement 
plate. 

Slightly moisten the places on the dial, where the new feet 
come, with dissolved shellac, and lay dial on these feet and 
see that second pivot comes properly through the dial, and 
that the edge of the dial corresponds with the edge of the 
movement plate. Now in this position let dial and move- 
ment lay over night, and in the morning the feet will be hard. 
Now lift your dial off carefully, turn it upside down, and bend 
up two brass clamps like a hair pin, but not so long, and clamp 
these feet on the flat part and lay this dial on a cork or piece 
of wood, feet up. Now put on your soft solder fluid, and 
blow a broad flame over it, and after the fluid has boiled you 
19 



WATCH. 282 

can put on your solder and blow again. Now dip it in a 
solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash off with soap and 
water, and brush dipped in clean water after the dirt is 
removed. Then dip it in alcohol, and dry in box-wood saw- 
dust. 

The balance of course is removed during this process of fit- 
ting the dial. Now examine further and we find our center 
pivot worn and the hole in the bridge or upper plate too 
large. We now turn the pivot smooth with a graver, and 
grind with a pivot polisher, or a hand oil stone file, or pencil 
made of iron wire. Now clean off with pith, and polish with 
rouge or crocus. Now take the bridge or upper plate, and 
with a round face-punch in staking tool, close the hole. Now 
use a round broach and open the hole to its proper size, so it 
will fit the pivot correctly. Run this broach through, with 
the bridge screwed to its place, letting the broach go through 
the opposite hole at the same time. Now in an English watch, 
we may need a new bush, as the hole may have been bushed 
to one side and the center wheel be out of upright; but the 
question is, how to make the best job, so it will be strong, 
neat and workman like. 

If you are compelled to put in a bush, or upright a hole in 
the center of a Swiss, English or American watch, first broach 
out the hole about twice its size and tap it with a fine thread. 
Now put in a threaded bush to fit snug; now rivet it in the 
staking tool, center the opposite hole in J:he universal head, 
center with a graver point and drill the bush in the lathe with 
a drill a shade smaller than the pivot. Now broach out in 
the lathe to suit the pivot and turn the bush off nicely with 
your slide rest. After sharpening your cutter on an oilstone, 
run it over a fine emery stick to remove the burr on the cut- 
ting edge. Now with moderate high speed you can turn off 
this bush in good style. Should the endshake be too tight, 
lay your plate, (English or full American), on a movement 
cup or ring, and with a wooden punch, and hammer punch 
it outward. Treat a mainspring barrel in a similar manner 
when the endshake of the arbor is too tight, by laying it on 
a small silk spool, one end of the spool turned conically 



283 WATCH. 

inward, so the outer edge only will touch the barrel. 
Strike the arbor with a horn, ivory, or wooden mallet. 

We oftentimes find American and English center pinions 
badly worn, so that when they are trued and polished up, 
there will be no shoulder left for the cannon pinion. When 
they are so badly worn as that, take a piece of steel, some- 
times an old English cannon pinion, (this will not have to be 
drilled), put it in lathe and turn a collar out of it, first prepar- 
ing center pinion to receive this collar. Have this collar a 
little higher and a little thicker than the pivot is to be, and to 
go on loosely. Now soft solder it on to its place, wash clean 
and dry, and put the center wheel with its pinion back in the 
lathe and finish off with graver and oil stone, file and rouge 
as before mentioned. The collar can be hardened and tem- 
pered in first class style, by putting a piece of binding wire 
through it and holding over the lamp and dipping in water 
or oil. Now you can clean it off by running a pointed peg- 
wood through it, then run over it with a fine emery stick, 
then lay on the bluing pan and turn to a dark chestnut color. 

Take the mainspring out of the barrel, hold the arbor in 
the same way and revolve the barrel and you can see if it 
runs true. Now to true this barrel, either Swiss, English or 
American, close the top or bottom hole with a round-faced 
punch, in a staking tool. In a Swiss, close the bottom and in 
an English the top hole. An American seldom needs this 
treatment. Now put barrel together and center it in univer- 
sal head, and with a narrow and short cutter in slide rest open 
the hole that you closed to fit the arbor. When fitted, take it 
out and revolve it as before and our barrel will be dead true. 
Now in our key winder Swiss, we find the ratchet worn, and 
it needs a new one. As the arbor and ratchet are one piece, 
we turn the ratchet about half off, edgewise. Now we turn 
it flatwise, and file or grind the square a little lower, so it will 
receive the new ratchet. This new ratchet must have a recess 
turned in it to fit over the part of the old ratchet. The square 
hole must fit the square snugly. Now if this new ratchet is not 
too hard and the teeth not too fine, it will last better than the 
original. Now in English watches the square is oftentimes 



WATCH. 284 

badly worn or too small. In this case draw the temper of the 
old square, turn it down by holding it in a step chuck by the 
fuzee, taking off the great or fuzee wheel, and maintaining 
ratchet. After turning it down and squaring the pivot, cut a 
left-hand thread in a suitable piece of steel and on the old 
square, (which of course is turned down in the step chuck), 
and fit this piece of steel on the old arbor, down to the pivot 
shoulder, against the stop cam. Now turn it down with a 
graver, and square up the end in a lathe, and drill a very 
small hole through near the end of the square upper end. 
Now take and unscrew the new square and harden and tem- 
per it. Hold it over the lamp by a piece of binding wire and 
dip in oil when cherry red. Now hold it in a chuck and clean 
if off with an emery stick. Now turn to a dark brown, screw 
back on, and grind and polish up. No graver is needed on 
this job after it is hardened and tempered. The thread need 
not go all the way down; half way will do, but the new 
square must go against the shoulder tight up to the lower 
round part of the square. When all done put the little pin 
through, which keeps it from coming off when turned to the 
right. 

On opening a barrel observe the condition of the main- 
spring, and the inside of the barrel head. Often in good 
watches the inside of the barrel head is not flat and the main- 
spring scrapes it. Turn this flat with a step chuck and slide 
rest, at high speed, and sharpen the cutter as before mentioned. 
Now examine the mainspring and see if it is the proper 
strength and width, and examine the hook or brace, and stop 
work, the teeth of the barrel, etc. Now, sometimes in Amer- 
ican watches, the barrel touches the balance; alter this by 
countersinking the lower hole of the arbor in the movement 
plate and bending the bridge down a little in the center, with 
a wooden spool and wooden punch, as in end shaking the 
center hole in American watches and the barrel arbor. 

Oftentimes we find the winding pinion too shallow for the 
bevel wheel; remedy this by either lowering the pinion 
deeper into the wheel or the wheel into the pinion. Often- 
times in Waltham watches, of the old series, the intermediate 



285 WATCH. 

winding wheel is too deep in the ratchet wheel. This can be 
corrected by the banking screw, by putting in one with a 
larger head. Now very often the intermediate setting wheel 
is too shallow in the minute wheel. Correct this by stretch- 
ing the lever where it touches the yoke, and taking off a little 
of the yoke where it banks for the hand setting. Remember 
that the yoke should be perfectly steady and firm, in turning 
the hands either way. The teeth of the minute wheel are 
often ruined when the cannon pinion is a little tight and the 
intermediate hand setting and minute wheels are t®o shallow. 
Never touch the arbor of the cannon pinion, but see that it is 
perfectly smooth and round. If the cannon pinion is too high 
from the plate turn a little off from the under side. Take 
pinion off with a pair of brass lined pliers. If the cannon 
pinion is too loose on the arbor, (if a stem-wind), punch it in 
the same place, with a punch in the staking tool, having a V 
shaped stump to lay the cannon pinion on, and holding it with 
a peg-wood or broach while punching it. Use a punch a little 
rounding. A cannon pinion should work smoothly all around. 
Now in a Swiss watch with a hallow center pinion, when its 
arbor is too loose, lay the arbor on a small flat anvil, or steel, 
or brass block, in front of you, not on vise, and hold a small 
square file across it and tap it with a small hammer, rolling it 
while you tap it. This raises a nice burr all around it. If a 
little too tight take it off with an oil stone slip. This can be 
done when the watch is clean and running. 

Now examine the click, and see that it has a loose end shake, 
and that the point goes freely in and out of the teeth of the 
wheel. Sometimes the point is too blunt, and in many cases 
the click spring is too strong. Click springs should have a 
very low temper, and a nice slender shape, as the bending 
they perform is very little. They should not scrape on the 
plate, nor hold the click down too tight, if made like some 
Elgin clicks. 

Now the end shake of the ratchet or ratchet wheel, should 
have some attention. You can easily manipulate this, if the 
ratchet is between the plates. End shake it with the winding 
arbor. Now we have the stem winding wheels, etc., in 



WATCH. 286 

proper shape. The minute wheel pinion may rub on the dial. 
This remedy by grinding the dial away with an emery wheel, 
and oftentimes free the hour wheel the same way. If there is 
too much end shake, put on a spring washer, cut it square and 
turn the corners up. We can examine the train from the 
third wheel to the scape wheel; see if the holes are large, and 
end shake correct. In some cases in Swiss watches, where the 
third and center wheels are under the same bridge, you can 
sometimes turn the shoulder of the lower pivot back. 

Sometimes we find pivots too loose in their holes, and in 
some cases, a new jewel can be put in to fit the pivot to a bet- 
ter advantage. In this case we must be guided by our prac- 
tical experience, as in many other instances. True pinion or 
staff in a split chuck, flatten the old place, that you are to cen- 
ter with, on an oilstone slip, and center it with a graver. Nine 
out of ten Swiss or English, and a few American pinions, can 
be drilled without annealing. Use oil and a properly made 
drill. For a bow drill use a rounding point, and in an Ameri- 
can lathe an obtuse angle point, to cut only one way. Drill 
pinion or staff, and if you are compelled to draw the temper, 
do it in the following way: Use a cap made of copper wire, 
holding the opposite end of staff or pinion in a pair of brass- 
lined flat plyers; set copper cap on and blow a sharp blaze on 
the cap to blue article to be drilled. Remove the color with 
a peg-wood and rouge; first with rouge and oil, and then 
with dry rouge. Never leave a pinion or staff discolored. 
Now, if article cannot be trued in a split chuck, cement it in, 
but you can true five out of every ten in a No. i Mosely lathe, 
without cement. For drilling it is not necessary that the 
article should run dead true; but it should be dead true, in 
turning the pivot on and finishing. Now, in pivoting after 
the hole is drilled and the plug is hammered in, turn your 
pivot to its proper shape with a graver and almost with the 
point. Turn pivot down to about three degrees thicker than 
pivot is to be. Now we have our pivot finished with a graver. 
Now use an iron wire, about two millimeters thick and about 
five inches long, flattened about one inch on one end with a 
file, filing crosswise, and now and then retouching with a 



287 WATCH. 

fine file. This is done so the file lines or marks will retain 
the grinding powder to be used with oil. For a staff pivot, 
always file the corner off a little, so it will conform to the 
conical shoulder, and file or grind, holding the oil-stone 
charged file so the latter and the pivot will traverse at an acute 
angle. This is done to prevent the pivot from lining. Now, 
if down to the desired size and shape, use another such tool, 
made of brass or zinc and charged with rouge and oil, and 
polish pivot in the same manner that you grind it. At last 
touch it up with dry rouge and a peg-wood. Diamantine and 
oil or alcohol can also be used to good advantage before using 
the rouge. 

After all repairs clean your work in the following manner: 
Use good benzine or gasoline and cyanide of potassium; a 
lump as large as a wallnut to a pint of water. Keep in a 
glass or china cup with a cover on it. Clean the lever in ben- 
zine only and dry in the sawdust. Have an alcohol cup, with 
cover, plenty of clean soft water (in cold weather use warm 
water), and a medium soft brush, like a paint brush, about a 
half inch thick for the benzine. A long, three or four row 
brush to use with good castile soap and water, and three, four 
or more pieces of brass wire made into loops or strings, by 
bending an eye on each wire like a fishing hook. The wire 
can be almost any length, from three to six inches, and from 
three-tenths to five-tenths mm. thick. This with about three 
pints of boxwood sawdust, put through a sieve to get out the 
coarse particles, and a soft camel's hair brush to use dry on 
the work after it has been cleaned, completes the outfit for 
cleaning. Put a wire through the top plate, hang in the ben- 
zine, and brush it carefully with the benzine brush, princi- 
pally the pivot holes. After this has been done, pick up the 
stem wheels, wheels and small parts, unscrew the safety 
pinions and wash and clean with the wheels. Oil the thread 
sparingly when you put it back. String all of these small 
parts on a wire. Put the lower plate on with the barrel. Use 
a very thick wire for the balance (dip it separately), and move 
it about in the benzine; dry it in sawdust, dip in cyanide solu- 
tion, in clear water, then in alcohol. Then move it about in 



WATCH. 288 

the sawdust; this will clean the balance and hair spring and 
roller. After the plates and wheels have gone through the 
benzine or gasoline, dip them in the cyanide and wash with 
brush and water and castile soap. Dip in clean water, then 
in alcohol and then in sawdust. By this process, every speck 
of oil will be removed, and the gilding or nickle finish will 
not be injured, as with old fogy chalk, and a variety of 
powder. Sometimes the dirt in the pinion is thick and hard, 
and it must be removed with peg- wood; sometimes it has been 
oiled with linseed oil and left to dry; this can be boiled off in 
oil and cleaned as mentioned. To get dirt or hard gum out 
of the wheel teeth, make a kind of pad with stiff writing 
paper, draw the edge of these papers through the teeth; this 
will clean them nicely. When taking the cleaned parts from 
the sawdust, hold them with Dennison's watch papers, and 
brush off with a three or four row soft camel or fine goat 
hair brush. In setting the watch up, set the stem work up 
first and oil it properly. Right here, in oiling, is where it 
requires judgment. For the stem work use a heavier oil than 
for the train. Use refined clock oil for the stem wheels, as 
they necessarily require a heavier oil and it also has less ten- 
dency to spread. Use watch oil in oiling the center pivots, 
and they being large should have more oil than the third, 
fourth and scape wheels, etc. Put the proper amount of oil 
on the end-stone or cap jewel before putting the latter to its 
place, also the barrel arbor. Oil the pallet faces sparingly 
before putting the lever to its place. Now if your balance 
and hair spring are true and in poise, and the pivots have their 
proper freedom and end shake, and the roller its proper free- 
dom, and everything is all right throughout, your watch will 
move off all right. To ascertain if exactly in beat, hold a 
peg-wood against the teeth of the fourth wheel, and move it 
slightly forward and observe the motion of the balance. If 
one pallet throws the balance further than the other, turn the 
hair spring by the collet slot, so that the lift will be equal on 
both pallets. When in beat examine the escapement again, 
see if the balance clears the stud, cock, center wheel, etc. 
See if all the screws are tight, and by all means have the hair 



289 WATCH BOW PLIERS 

spring so the second coil will not get into the curb pins. 
After this the train can be oiled. The barrel pivot next to 
the ratchet, or ratchet wheel should be oiled before the ratchet 
or wheel is put on. It is well to oil the balance jewel holes 
after it has been put in beat, on account of dragging in dust 
with the pivots if they should be oiled before. After this 
put on the dial wheels; do not oil the minute wheel posts; see 
that the hour wheel has its proper end shake. In cheap 
watches put on a thin washer to steady the hour hand and 
and wheel; put the dial on and see that the second and hour 
wheel sockets are in the center of the holes after the dial is 
properly fastened. If you have any steel hands to bend, it 
will pay you to bend them with a pair of hot tweezers, as this 
will avoid breaking them. Now set your second hand with 
your second pendulum regulator, and regulate pendant up. 
Meantime you can clean the case with water, ammonia and a 
soft cotton rag. An old tooth brush can be used in the 
corners. Stiff joints in front case can be loosened up with 
benzine. This will take the dirt out, and the joint will work 
free. Cases should be cleaned like all other repaired work. 
Often we find balance hole jewels entirely too thick, so they 
will take an unreasonably long pivot to reach through them. 
To remedy this, use an iron point charged with diamond 
powder that fits the concave of the jewel, and then polish in 
the same manner with a finer grade of diamond powder, dia- 
mantine and rotten stone. Keep the jewel wet with water 
in grinding and polishing, and use the highest speed you can 
produce. Care must be taken in this operation, as it requires 
a little experience. Like everything else, you will find a 
great deal of difference in grinding a garnet or a ruby or 
sapphire, also in polishing them. Zinc and lead points are 
used in polishing with diamantine and rotten stone and water. 
If the above process is understood it can be quickly done. 
The hole can also be polished, hut in some cases it will pay 
better to put in a new and perfect jewel. F. C. R. 

WATCH BOW PLIERS. Pliers of a peculiar shape 
as shown in Fig. 194, and used for manipulating watch bows. 



WATCH CASE TOOL. 290 

WATCH CASE TOOL. The Hopkins' patent watch 
case tool is designed for the two-fold purpose of easing a case 




Fig. 194. 

when it opens too hard, and for making one stay shut when 
it opens too easy. It is illustrated in Fig-. 195. The part D is 
intended only for use when the spring catch of a hunting case 
has worn the case so it will not stay shut. 




Fig. 195. 

For making a hack case stay shut when it opens too easily, 
use the cutting tooth B, in the following manner: rest the 
beveled edge of the tool from A to C, down level on the 
ledge against which the dome or back case closes, as repre- 
sented in the illustration, taking care to keep the end A as- 
well as the tooth B down level on the ledge, and inward 
against the part to be re-under cut, in which position with the 
end D, resting in the hollow of your right hand, back of the 
little finger, and with your thumb resting on the inner cap to 
steady your hand, hold the tool thus quite still, and with your 
left hand give a circular movement to the watch, crowding the 
part to be under cut against the tooth B, that is, instead of 
shoving the tool forward to produce the cutting, hold the tool 
still, and crowd the part of the case to be cut against it as 
described. By thus renewing the under cut of the catch edge, 
even a badly worn case may be made to shut and stay shut 
nicely. 



291 WATCH HAND PLIERS. 

For easing the cap or the back case of a watch when it 
opens too hard, rest the end A y of the tool, down on the inside 
of the dome, with the handle inclining backward at an angle 
of about 45 , and with one of the sharp edges extending from 
A to C, brought to bear against the snap edge that requires 
to be eased, in such a way that it will give a shaving (not a 
scraping) cut; carefully shave off the edge, thus, to the extent 
required. In this way even the most delicate case may be 
eased without the slightest marring or injury to it. In case 
of roughness of the snap edge, burnish it carefully with the 
back of the tool ; or rubbing a bit of beeswax around the edge 
will often be found of service in cases of this kind. 

WATCH HAND PLIERS. Fig. 196 shows Horton's 
combination watch hand pliers used for removing watch 

hands, second, hour and minute. 
It also takes the place of the 9-hole 
hand sliding tongs. 

WATCHMAKERS. Some- 
times the watchmaker . and jew- 
eler is desirous of telling how old a certain movement may 
be and the following alphabetical list of English watch and 
clock makers may aid him in fixing the age approximately. 
cc with date following indicates the year in which the 
person became a member of the Clockmakers' Company, of 
London. Watch, is watchmaker, and clock, is clockmaker. 
Abbott, John, London, clock, cc 1703. 
Abbott, Peter, London, clock, cc 1719. 
Abbott, John, London, son of Peter, clock, cc 1740. 
Ames, Richard, London, clock, cc 1653, died 1679. 
Andrews, John, London, cc 1688. 

Aspinwall, Samuel, London, watch, was in business in 1590. 
Barrow, Samuel, London, cc 1696. 
Bauge, Edward, cc 1695, an apprentice of Thomas Tompion; 

was in business in London in 1741. 
Baylie, Jeffry, English, cc 1648. 
Beauvais, Simon, London, clock, cc 1690. 




WATCHMAKERS. 292 

Bell, Benj., London, watch, cc 1660, died 1694. 

Bouchet, J., London, clock, cc 1728. 

Bowley, Devereux, London, clock, cc 171S, Junior Warder 
of cc in 1756 "and Master in 1759, born 1697, died 1773. 

Bojear, William, London, clock, cc 1633. 

Bradley, Langley, London, clock, was member of the court 
of assistants of cc and elected Junior Warder in 1724, Ren- 
ter Warder in 1725, Senior Warder in 1724 and Master in 
1726. 

Brown, Henton, London, clock, cc 1726. 

Cabrier, Charles, London, watch, cc 1697. 

Cam, William, London, clock, cc 1686. 

Chater, James, London, clock, carried on business at 14 Corn- 
hill, London, from 1782 to 1790, when he was succeeded 
by Chater & Son, who were in business until 1S00. 

Clarke, George, London, clock, cc 1632. 

Closson, Peter, London clock, cc 1633. 

Cumming, Alexander, London, watch, commenced business 
in 1760. Died, 18 13. 

Decka, John, London, cc 1757. 

East, Edward, London, watch and clock. One of the ten 
original assistants appointed by the Charter of Incorpora- 
tion of the Clockmakers' Company in 1632. Was Warder 
in 1638-9, Master in 1645-52, Treasurer in 1637, being the 
only occupant of the latter office in the history of the com- 
pany. He was watchmaker to Charles I. 

East, Jeremy, London, clock, cc 164 1. 

Ebsworth, John, London, clock, cc 1665. Warder in 1695, 

Ethrington, George, London, clock, cc 1684. 

Everell, John, London, watch, in business in 1730. 

Exelby, James, London, clock, cc 17 18. 

Goode, Charles, London, clock, cc 1686. 

Green, James, London, clock, cc 1664. 

Greene, James, London, clock, cc 1685. 

Green, John, London, watch and clock, cc 1711. 

Green, Joseph, London, clock, cc 1723. 

Green, James, London, clock, Master of cc 1784. 

Gregory, Jeremy, London, clock, cc 1652. Died 16S5. 



293 WATCHMAKERS. 

Gregory, Thomas, London, clock, cc 1671. 

Gregory, Robert, London, clock, cc 1678. 

Gregory, Jeremiah, London, clock, cc 1694. 

Grennel, Richard, London, clock, cc 1735. 

Harper, Henry, London, clock, cc 1664. 

Harris, Anthony, London, clock, cc 1683. 

Hemmen, London, watch, in business in 1646. 

Harris, Henry, London, watch, cc 171 1. 

Hodges, Nathaniel, London, clock, cc 16S1. 

Hohwii, Andreas, Amsterdam, Holland, chronometer maker 

to the Dutch Marine. Born 1803, died 1886. 
Hunter, Thomas, Sr., London, clock, cc 1780. 
Hunter, Thomas, Jr., London, clock, cc 1798. 
Ireland, Henry, London, clock, cc 1668. 
Irving, Alexander, London, clock, cc 1795. 
Johnson, Thos. , London, watch, in business at 9 Gray's Inn 
Passage, in eighteenth century. Was succeeded by his son 
John, who died in 1799, and was succeeded by Daniel 
Desbois, who died 1848. 
Jones, Henry, London, clock, cc 1697. 

Knibb, Joseph, London, clock, cc 1670. 

Leconte, Daniel, London, clock, cc 1676. 

LeCompte, James, London, clock, cc 16S7. 

Lecount, Peter, London, clock, cc 1787. 

Lee, Cuthbert, London, clock, cc 1676. 

Long, John, London, clock, cc 1677. 

Long, John, London, clock, cc 1698. 

Long, Henry, London, watch, in business at 200 High Hol- 
bon in 17S0. 

Markwick, James, London, watch, cc 1666. 

Markwick, James, London, watch, cc 1692. 

Mottram, John, Clerkenwell, clock, in business in 1790. 

Nathan, Henry, clock, cc 1673. 

Planner, Thomas, London, clock, cc 1701. 

Planner, Thomas, London, clock, cc 1730. 

Quare, Daniel, London, clock, in business from 1632 to 1724. 

Reid, Thomas, Edinburg, watch and clock, born 1748, died 

1834. 



WATCHMAKERS. 294 

Rimbault, Paul, London, clock; born in Switzerland. In 

business in London in eighteenth century. 
Rimbault, Stephen, son of Paul, succeeded him in business at 

9 Denmark street, St. Giles, London, and was there in 1800. 
Ringmader, , watch, Dublin, Ireland, in business in 

1792. 
Rivers, David, London, clock, cc 1773. 
Rivers, William, London, clock, cc 1794. 
Rooker, Richard, London, watch, cc 1728. 
Swell, George, London, clock, cc 1688. 
Sowery, Andrew, London, clock, cc 1676. 
Storer, Robert, London, watch, cc 1760. 
Taylor, Jasper, London, clock, cc 1694 
Taylor, Thomas, London, clock, cc 1703. 
Taylor, Jasper, London, clock, cc 1729. 
Thornton, Henry, London, clock, cc 1699. 
Townsend, Joseph, Helmdon, Eng., clock; in business in 1670. 
Underwood, William, London, clock; was in business in 

Falcon street, Aldersgate, London, in 1790. 
Vick, Richard, watch, cc 1702. 
Vulliamy, Benj., Gray, Justin, London, clock, in business in 

1790. 
Webster, William, watch and clock, Muster of cc 1765. 
Wyse, John, London, clock, cc 1669. 
Wyse, Richard, London, clock, cc 1679. 
Wyse, John, London, clock, cc 1683. 
Wyse, Thomas, London, clock, cc 1686. 
Wyse, Joseph, London, clock, cc 1687. 
Wyse, Peter, London, clock, cc 1693. 
Wvse, Luke, London, clock, cc 1694. 
Wyse, Robert, London, clock, cc 1695. 
Wyse, John, London, clock, cc 17 10. 
Wyse, Mark, London, clock, cc 17 19. 
York, Thomas, London, clock, cc 1716. 

WHEELS AND PINIONS. In the construction of 
watches and clocks it is necessary to transmit motion from one 
arbor to another, so that the arbor which is driven rotates 



2^5 WHEELS AND PINIONS. 

more quickly than the one which drives it. If it were prac- 
ticable to use rollers with smooth edges for transmitting such 
motion, the diameter of the rollers would be inversely pro- 
portionate to the number of rotations made by their arbors in 
a given time. For instance, the distance apart of two arbors 
from center to center measures 3.7 inches, and it is desired 
that for every time the arbor from which the power is taken 
rotates the other shall rotate eight times. The distance between 
the arbors is divided into nine equal parts of which eight are 
taken for the radius of the driver, which rotates only once, 
and one part for the radius of the follower as it is called^ 
which rotates eight times. Although it is not practicable to 
drive with smooth rollers, which would slip unless pressed so 
tightly together as to cause excessive friction, the circles repre- 
senting the rollers are the basis on which the wheel and pinion 
are constructed. They are called the pitch circles. The act- 
ing part of the teeth of the driver is beyond its pitch circle, 
and the acting part of the teeth of the follower within its 
pitch circle. In most of the toothed wheels with which 
watchmakers are concerned, the driver is the wheel and the 
follower the pinion. The shape for the acting part of the 
wheel is an epicycloid, a curve generated by rolling one circle 
on another. 

In Fig. 197 *is shown a 
portion of a circle represent- 
ing the pitch diameter of 
the wheel, and on it a smaller 
circle rolling in the direction 
FlG> I97> of the arrow. If these two 

are made of brass or any thin material, and laid on a sheet of 
paper, a pencil fixed to the circumference of the small roller 
will trace a curve as shown. This curve is the acting part of 
the wheel tooth. 

The acting part of the pinion leaves must be produced by 
the same sized roller as was used for the points of the wheel 
teeth, but in a different manner. The pinion flanks should 
be hypocycloidal in form. A hypocycloid is obtained by roll- 
ing one circle within another instead of upon it. The most 




WHEELS AND PINIONS. 



296 




convenient size for the generating roller for both wheel and 
pinion is half the pitch diameter of the pinion. In Fig. 198 is 
a circle representing the pitch circle of the pinion, with an- 
other circle half its size rolling within it, 
and in this case the point described by the 
pencil would be a straight radial line, which 
is a suitable form for the pinion. 

Teeth formed in this way will transmit 
the motion uniformly at the same speed as 
though the pitch circles rolled on each other 
without teeth, and will also meet another 
important requirement. The action between the teeth will 
take place almost wholly after the line of centers, that is if the 
pinion has not less than ten leaves. The difference between 
engaging and disengaging friction is great, especially if the 
surfaces in contact are not quite smooth. Wheels which have 
any considerable portion of their action between the teeth as 
they are engaging or before the line of centers, not only 
absorb considerable power thereby, but wear out rapidly. 

With a larger generating 
circle more of the action 
between the teeth of the 
wheel and the leaves of the 
pinion would take place 
after the line of centers, 
which is a consideration with 
low numbered pinions, but 
then a larger generating 
circle traces a pinion leaf too 
weak at the root. 
The pitch circle of the wheel is spaced out so that the teeth 
and the spaces are equal. To allow of necessary freedom the 
teeth or leaves of the pinion are less in width than the spaces. 
The distance between the center of one leaf and the center of 
the next may be divided into .6 for space and .4 for leaf.* 

*The " pitch" of wheels and pinions is the portion of the circumfer- 
ence of the pitch circle between the center of one tooth and the center 
of the next. 




Fig. 199. 




297 WHEELS AND PINIONS. 

The pinion leaves are finished with a semi-circular piece 
projecting beyond the pitch circle as seen in Fig. 199. They 
would work without if properly pitched, but would not be 
safe as the depth became shallow from the wearing of the 
holes. Some prefer a Gothic-shaped projection like Fig. 200, 
which is of epicycloidal form, the same as the wheel teeth. 
This is a very suitable form if the pinions are low numbered, 
for, although with it the action takes place more before the 
line of center, as aferdepth is insured. 

The teeth of the wheel are ex- 
tended within the pitch line to allow 
of clearance for the addendum of the 
pinion. The root or part of the wheel 
tooth within the pitch line is gener- 
ally radial. 

The corners at the bottom of the 
tooth may be rounded strength, but 
these round corners must not be so full FlG ' 2 °°' 

as to engage the points of the pinion leaves. The action should 
be confined as nearly as possible to the epicycloid on the wheel, 
and the hypocycloid on the pinion. In watches, the roots of 
all the wheels and pinions are left square, except the roots of 
the barrel or great wheel teeth, and the roots of the center 
pinion leaves, which should always be rounded for strength. 
There is then less danger of the teeth stripping if the main- 
spring breaks. 

If the pinion is to be used as the driver and the wheel as the 
follower, as is the case in the motion work of watches and 
clocks, the points of the pinion teeth must be epicycloidal, and 
the roots of the wheel teeth hypocycloidal struck with the 
same generating circle. For the convenience of using wheels 
and pinions indiscriminately as drivers and followers, engineers 
generally use a generating circle whose diameter = the pitch 
x 2.22 for the points and roots of all wheels and pinions of 
the same pitch. The tip of the addendum is removed in both 
wheels and pinions. 

If more than two wheels gear together, the acting parts of 
all should be struck from the same sized generating circle. 
20 



WHEELS AND PINIONS. 



298 



The number of teeth in a wheel bears exactly the same pro- 
portion to the number of teeth in a pinion with which it gears, 
as the diameter of the pitch circles of the wheel and pinion 
bear to each other. If the pinion whose pitch circle is .8 of an 
inch in diameter has 10 teeth, then the wheel with a pitch 
circle of 6.4 inches in diameter will have 80 teeth, because .8 
is contained 8 times in 6.4, and 10 x 8 = 80. But the out- 




Fig. 201. 

side or full diameter of a wheel or pinion is not proportional 
to the pitch diameter. The addendum or portion of the tooth 
beyond the acting part bears reference rather to the size of 
the generating circle and to the width of the teeth than to the 
diameter of the wheel or pinion. 

Lantern pinions work very smoothly as followers, though 
they are unsuitable as drivers. The space occupied by the 
shrouds precludes their use in watches, but in the going parts 
of clocks they answer well. 



299 WHEEL CUTTER. 

For the convenience of ready calculation it may be assumed 
that the addendum of the wheel teeth increases the size of the 
wheel by three teeth. For instance, the pitch diameter of a 
wheel of So teeth is 2 inches. Then its pitch diameter would 
bear the same proportion to its full diameter as 80 does to S3; 
or So : 2 : : 83 : 2.07, which is the full diameter. 

In the same way it may be taken that the circular addendum 
increases the size of the pinion by 1.25 teeth, and the epicy- 
cloidal addendum by 1.98, or nearly 2 teeth. 

If the pinion is to be used as the driver, it must have the 
epicycloidal addenda to insure proper action. I believe an 
opinion prevails among some watchmakers that the circularly 
rounded pinions may be used as drivers if they are sectored 
large, and that they are so used for motion work, but such a 
practice is altogether wrong. 

In the motion work of keyless watches the followers are 
used as drivers when the hands are being «et, and a good form 
of tooth for motion work gener- 
ally may be obtained by using for 
roots and points of both wheels 
and pinions a generating circle of 
a diameter equal to twice the pitch. 
This gives a short tooth which will 
run smoothly when at full width. 
The form of gearing suitable for 
the train permits of too much shake 
for motion work. — Britten, FlG . 202> 

WHEEL CUTTER. The wheel cutter is a valuable 
addition to the lathe. SeveraWdifferent styles of these tools 
are made, each possessing points of merit. They are designed 
for cutting all kinds of -wheels and pinions used in key and 
stem-wind watches. When the cutter spindle is vertical the 
belt runs directly to it from the countershaft, but when hori- 
zontal the belt passes over idler pulleys held above the lathe. 
These idler pulleys are also used to run the pivot polisher. 
Fig. 201 illustrates the American Watch Tool Co.'s wheel 
cutter, while Fig. 202 is Moseley's pattern. 




WHEEL VISE. 



300 



WHEEL VISE. Rose's patent wheel vise, shown in 
Fig. 203, is used for holding all kinds of watch wheels while 
undergoing repairs, such as putting in new teeth, removing 
rust from pinions, etc., and for holding 
balance wheels while putting in or re- 
moving the screws, taking the hair 
spring or collet from staff or for any 
work where the safety of the wheel is 
involved. 




Hiiiililiiii 




WIGWAG. The wigwag is used 
for polishing the shoulders of pinions, 
pinion leaves, staffs and pivots, and for 
numerous other operations. The for- 
mation of these tools differ according to 
Fig. 203. the ideas of the various makers, but in 

principal they are alike. These tools are used extensively in 
all the American watch factories. 



NDEX 



Abbey, 63 

Acceleration, 9 

Acid bottle, 11 

Acids, and salts, 10 

Adendum circle, 11 

Adhesion, 11 

Adjustable case springs, 62 

Adjusting rod, 12 

Adjustment, 12 

Adjustment heater, 16 

Adjustment to isochronism, 14 

Ajustment to positions, 12 

Alcohol cup, 16 

Alcohol lamp, 16 

Alloys, iS 

Alum, 10 

Aluminum, 22 

alloys, 18 

bronze, 18 

gold, 19 

silver, 19 

zinc, 19 
Amalgam, 22 
Anchor escapement, 23 
Angular velocity, 26 
Annealing, 26 

of steel, 262 
Anode, 26 
Aqua fortis, 10 
regia, 10 
Arbor, 26 

barrel, 52 
saw, 244 
Arc, 27 

balance, 44 
Arcograph, 27 
Arnold, John, 63 



Assay, 27 

of silver, 251 
Artificial gold, 16 
Auxiliary, 30 
Axle, 26 
Balance, 27 

alloys, 18 

arc, 44 

auxiliaries, 30 

bridge, 44 

cock, 44 

compensation, 102 

expansion and contraction 
of, 28 

making, 28 

pivots, 234 

pivots, 49, 234 

Pool's, 30 

protector, 45 

size and weight of, 30 

staff, 46 

screw washers, 45 

spring, 46 

truing, 34 

to poise, 33 
Banking pins, 51 
Barrel, 52 

arbor, 52 
chiming, 78 
contractor, 52 

hook, 52 

ratchet, 52 

to true, 283 
Batteries, 129 
Beat, 52 

block, 53 
pins, 53 



301 



302 



Beat, to put in, 176 
Bell metal, 20 

metal, American, 21 
metal, Japanese, 21 
Bench, 53 

Bending gong wires, 240 
Benzine, 55 

cup, 16 
Berthond, Ferdinand, 63 

Louis, 63 
Bevel gear, 55 
Bezel, 55 

chuck, 89 
Binding wire, 55 
Bite, 55 
Blow pipe, 55 

lamp, 17 
Bluing, 55 

pan, 55 
shovel, 56 
Bluestone, 55 
Boiling out pan, 57 
Borax, 10 
Bouchon, 57 
Bow, 57 
Brass, 20 

to clean, 95 
polishing paste, 99 
Breguet, Abraham, L., 63 
Bridge, 58 

balance, 44 
Britannia, 20 
Broach, 58 

Broaching second hands, 179 
Bronze for medals, 21 

for ornaments, 21 
Japanese, 21 
manganese, 21 
Paris, 21 
Bronzing, 129 

analine, 139 
antique, 140 
black, for brass, 140 
black, for gun barrels, 140 
blue, 140 



Bronzing, blue, for iron or steel, 141 
brass, 141 
brown, 142 

brown, for copper, 142 
brown, for guns, 142 
Chinese, 143 
copper, 14T 
gold, for brass, 143 
gold, for iron, 143 
gold, for silver, 143 
gray, for brass, 144 
green, for brass, 144 
liquid, 141, 
medal, 141 
steel, 267 

steel blue for brass, 147 
Buff, 58 
Bullseye, 5S 
Burnisher, 58 

wheel, 105 
Burnishing tool , 59 
Bush, 59 
Bushing, 282 

pivot holes, 59 
punch, 59 
wire, 59 
Butting, 59 
Calipers, 59 

jeweled, 61 
jeweling, 1S4 
Callet, F. 63 
Cam, 61 
Cannon pinion, 61 

pinion to repair, 285 
Cap, 61 

Capillary attraction, 61 
Capped jewel, 61 
Capsule balance making, 28 
Carrier, 61 
Cardinal points, 61 
Case hardening, 61 
springs, 62 
spring vise, 62 
stake, 62 
Cathode, 26 



303 



Celebrated watchmakers, 63 
Centrifugal force, 77 
Cement, 67 

acid proof, 67 
alabaster, 67 
amber, 67 
brasses, 69 
engravers, 68 
fire-proof, 68 
glass and, brass, 68 
glass and metal, 68 
gold colored, 68 
jewelers, 69 
knife and fork, 68 
metal, 69 
silver colored, 68 
strong, 68, 
transparent, 68 
watchmakers, 68 
Centering attachment, 71 

indicator, 73 
Center of gravity, 73 
of gyration, 74 
of motion, 74 
of oscillation, 74 
pinions, to repair, 283 
punch, 73 
seconds, 77 
staff, 77 
wheel, 77 
Centers, 70 
Chain hook, 77 
Chamois, 77 

to clean, 77 
Chamfer, 77 
Chamfering tool, 77 
Chariot, 78 
Chimes, 78 
Chiming barrel, 78 
Chloride of ammonium, 21 
Chronograph, 78 
Chronometer, 78 

escapement, 78 
marine, 78 
pocket, 78, 85 



Chronoscope, 87 
Chrysorine, 20 
Chuck, 88 

adjustable, 88 

arbor, 88 

bezel, 89 

box, 93 

cement, 90 

dead-center, 90 

pivoting, 91 

screw, 88 

shoulder, 88 

split, 88 

step, 93 

wheel, 93 
Circular error, 100 
Clamps, 100 
Cleaning of silver, 252 

of watches, 280 
Cleansing, pickling and polishing 93 
Clement's escapement, 23 
Cleat, 100 
Clepsydra, 100 
Cliche, 100 
Click, 100 

spring, 101 
Clock bell alloys, 21 

wheel alloys, 21 
Closing hole punch, 59 
Club tooth, 101 
Clutch, 102 
Cock, 101, 

balance, 44 
Collet, 102 

wrench, 102 
Compass, 102 
Compasses, 102 
Compensation balances, 102 
curb, 103 
pendulum, 102 
files, 18 
Concave, 102 
Conical pendulum, 103 

pivot, 103 
Conoidal, 103 



304 



Contractor, barrel, 52 
Contrate wheel, 103 
Conversion, 103 
Convex, 103 
Convexo-concave, 103 

convex, 103 
Copper, 103 

durable luster on, 147 
Corundum, 104 

wheels, 104 
Counter balance, 104 
Countermark, 104 
Countersink, 104 
Crank, 105 
Crescent, 105 
Crown-wheel, 105 
Crucible, 105 
Crystal, 105 
Curb pins, 105 
Cutter, screw head sink, 248 

rose, 243 
Cycloid, 106 
Cylinder escapement, 106 

plugs, 112 
Damaskeen, 114 

imitation of, 133 
Dead beat escapement, 114 
Decant, 114 

Demagnetization of watches, 213 
Demagnetizer, 115 
Dent, E. J., 63 
Depth, 118 
Depthing tool, 118 
Detached escapement, 119 
Detent, 119 
De Vick, Henry, 63 
Dial, 119 

cleaning metal, 121 

double sunk, 123 

drill, 119 

grinding backs of, 121 

pins, 281 

reduce diameter of, 120 

remove name from, 120 

remove stains from, 120 



Dial, repairing, 120 
Diamantine, 121 
Diamond drills, 121 

gravers, 121 
laps and mills, 121 
files, 122 
powder, 122 
Dipleidoscope, 122 
Distributor, 122 
Dividing plate, 122 
Dog, 122 

screws, 122 
Double roller escapement, 123 

sunk dial, 123 
Douzieme, 123 
Draw, 123 

plate, 123 
Drifting tool, 123 
Drill, 124 

rest, 124 
stock, 125 
lathe, 125 
diamond, 122 
Drilling pinions, 286 
Drop, 125, 194 
Drum, 125 

Duplex escapement, 126 
hook, 129 
roller, 129 
Dust bands, 129 
Electro-plating, 129 

aluminating baths for, 136 
brass baths for, 136 
copper baths for, 136 
dead luster in, 133 
doctoring in, 136 
gold baths for, 131 
grained surface in, 138 
green gold in, 133 
imitation damaskeening 133 
nickel baths for, 135 
recovery of metal when 137 
red gold in, 132 
silver baths for, 133 
Emery, 147 



305 



Emery, buff, 58 

countersinks, 147 
files and pencils, 147 
sticks, 147 
wheels, 148 

End stone, 148 

Engine turning, 148 

English watchmakers, 291 

English hall mark, 177 

Engraving block, 148 

on steel, 269 

Epicycloid, 149, 295 

Equation of time, 149 

Equidistant lockings, 204 

Escapement, 149 

anchor, 23 
chronometer, 78 
Clement's, 23 
cylinder, 106 
dead beat, 114 
detached, 119 
double roller, 123 
duplex, 126 
files, 151 
frictional, 154 
Graham, 168 
lever, 189 
pin pallet, 230 
pin wheel, 232 
recoil, 239 
resilient, 242 
right angle, 189 
straight line, 189 
two pin, 202, 277 
verge, 278 
vertical, 280 

Escape pinion, 150 

Escaping arc, 150 

Eye glass, 150 

Ferric oxide, 98 

Ferrule, 150 

Fetil, Pierre, 63 

Fictitious silver, 20 

Files, 151 

diamond, 122 



Filigree to clean, 253 
Filing block, 152 
fixture, 152 
Flux, 153 
Fly or fan, 153 
Follower, 153 
Foot wheel, 153 
Friction, 153 

of train pivots, 235 
Frictional escapements, 154 
Frosting, 154 

of silver, 253 
Full plate, 154 
Fusee, 155 

advantage of, 33 
Gas heater, 156 
Guage, 157 

cylinder height, 164 
Dennison's, 157 
Douzieme, 158 
jewelers, 161 
micrometer, 159 
pinion and wire, 161 
registering, 162 
staff, 162 
staff length, 162 
twist drill, 165 
vernier caliper, 165 
German silver pickle, 95 
Gilding steel, 138 
Gimbals, 167 
Going barrel, 167 
fusee, 167 
Gold alloys, 22 
blue, 22 
gray, 22 
green, 22 
Nurnberg. 21 
pickle, 95 

polishing powder, 99 
red, 22 
spring, 168 
yellow, 22 
Gong and bell alloys, 21 
Graham escapement, 168 



306 



Graham, Geo., 64 
Graver, 172 ' 

diamond, 122 
Gravimeter, 174 
Gravity, 174 

center of, 173 

escapement, 174 

specific, 174 
Great wheel, 174 
Grinder, traverse spindle, 276 
Grinding and polishing pinions, 
Grossman, Moritz, 64 
Guard pin, 174 

Gun barrels, stain for, 140, 142 
Gyrate, 174 
Gyration, center of 74 
Hairspring, 175 

stud index, 176 
Half plate, 176 
Hall mark, 177 
Hand remover, 179 
Hands, 179 

Hardening of steel, 263 
Harrison, John, 64 
Hook, barrel, 52 
chain, 77 
Hooke, Robt, 64 
Hopkins' jeweling tool, 182 

lathe, 187 
Horizontal escapement, 180 
Houriet, F., 64 
Hour glass, 180 
wheel, 180 
Huyghens, Christian, 65 
Hydrochloric acid, 11 
Hydrofluoric acid, 11 
Idler, 180 
Imitation silver, 21 
Impulse pin, 180 
Independent seconds, 180 
Index, 180 
Inertia, 180 
Involute, 181 
Isochronal, 181 
Jocot pivot lathe, 181 



Janvier, Antide, 65 

Japanese bronze, 21 

Jeweled calipers, 61 

Jeweling, 181 

caliper rest, 184 
and staking tool, 182 

Jewel, capped, 61 
pin, 185 
pin setter, 184 

Jodin, Jean, 65 
229 Joint pusher, 186 

Jurgensen, Urban, 65 

Kessels, M., 65 

Knife and fork alloy, 21 

Lacquer, 186 

Lantern pinion, 187 

Laps and mills, diamond, 121 

Lap, 187 

Lathe, 187 

Lepaute, J. A., 65 

LeRoy, Julien, 65 
Pierre, 65 

Lever escapement, 189 

Lever, straight line, 269 

Lime, Vienna, 280 

Locking, 210 

Logan jewel pin setter, 184 

Lubricators, 223 

Magnetism, 210 

Magnets, to temper, 269 

Mainspring, 214 

cleaning of, 216 
punch, 216 
winder, 216 

Maintaining power, 220 

Malleable brass, 20 

Maltese cross, 220 

Mandril, 220 

Manganese bronze, 21 

Marine chronometer, 78 

Mass, 221 

Material cup, 221 

Matt for steel, 264 

Matting, 221 

Meridian dial, 221 



307 



Medal bronze, 21 
Metals, to clean, 94 
Micrometer, 159, 221 

tables, 160 
Millimeter, 221 
Milling fixture, 221 
Moinet, Louis, 65 
Momentum, 221 
Motel, H., 66 
Motion work, 221 
Movement, 222 

box, 222 

cover, 222 

holder, 222 

in beat, 176 

rest, 222 
Mudge, Thos., 66 
Nickel, cleaning, 94 

plating with battery, 135 
plating without battery, 138 
plating by boiling, 139 
Nine-hole sliding tongs, 179 
Nitric acid, 10 
Non-magnetic alloy, 21 

watch, 223 
Nurnberg gold, 21 
Oil, 224 
Oiler, 226 
Oil sink, 226 
Oiling a watch, 288 
Oilstones, 227 
Oilstone dust, 227 
Opera glass alloy, 21 
Oroide, 21 

Oscillation, centre of, 74 
Overbanking, 227 
Overcoil, 227 
Pallet, 227 

staff, 227 
stones, 22S 
stone adjuster, 22S 
to test, 194 
Parallel bars, 34 
Paris bronze, 21 
Pendulum, 228 



Pendulum, compensation, 102 
conical, 103 
to clean, 93 
spring, 228 
Peg wood, 228 

cutter, 55 
Pendant, 228 
Perron, M., 66 
Pickling of metals, 95 
Pillar, 229 

plate, 229 
Pinchbeck, 21 
Pinion, 229 

cannon, 61 

grinding and polishing, 229 

lantern, 187 
Pin vise, 231 

wheel escapement, 232 
pallet escapement, 230 
Pivot, 234 

balance, 49 

conical, 103 

cylinder, 236 

friction, 32, 235 

guage, 48, 237 

hole bushing, 59 

lathe, 181 

length of balance, 234 

play of, 234 

polisher, 237 

polishing, 50 

shape of, 236 

to straighten, 235 

train, friction of, 235 
Pivoting cylinders, 236 
Plating, 129 

Pocket chronometer, 78 
Poising tool, 34 23S 
Polisher, glass for steel, 269 
Poising the balance, 33 
Polishing agents, 98 
buff, 5 8 
metals, 94 
Positive pole, 26 
Potence, 101/238 



308 



Prince's metal, 21 
Pump center, 238 
Punch, bushing, 59 
center, 73 
closing hole, 59 
mainspring, 216 
Push piece, 238 
Quare, Danl., 66 
Quarter screws, 238 
Rack lever, 239 
Ratchet, 239 

barrel, 52 
Recoil escapement, 239 
Red stuff, 239 
Regulator, 239 
Reid, Thos., 66 
Repair clamps, 239 
Repairing of watches, 280 
Repeater, 240 

gong wires, 240 
Right angle escapement, 189 
Ring guage, 242 
Riveting stake, 242 
Resilient escapement, 242 
Robin, Robt, 66 
Roller remover, 242 
Romilly, M., 66 
Roze, A. C, 66 
Rose cutter, 243 
Rounding-up tool, 243 
Ruby pin, 244 

roller, 244 
Rust, to remove from steel, 267 
Safety pin, 244 
Safety pinion, 244 
Sal-ammoniac, 11 
Sapphire file, 244 
Saw arbor, 244 
Scratch brushing, 99 
Screws, 244 

to remove broken, 245 

to blue, 56 

left handed, 246 
Screw driver, 247 
Screw extractor, 247 



Screw head sink cutter, 248 
holder, 262 
plate, 249 
tap, 249 
Second hand holder, 179 
Second hand remover, 250 
Shellac, 250 
Siderial clock, 250 
time, 272 
Silver, 250 

assay by smelting, 252 
assay with tube, 251 
cleaning, 94, 252 
cleaning filigree, 253 
distinguishing, 251 
frosting, 253 
oxidizing, 144 
paste, 98 
soap, 98 

separating of, 250 
Silvering for brass or copper, 145 
small iron articles, 145 
without battery, 146 
Silver plating with battery, 133 

without battery, 146 
Slide rest, 254 
Sliding tongs, 179 
Snail, 254 
Snap, 254 
Snarling iron, 254 
Soldering, 255 

fluxes, 257 
forceps, 258 
tweezers, 277 
Solders, 255 

hard, 255 
gold, 255 
silver, 255 
soft, 255 
to dissolve, 257 
Solar time, 274 
Specific gravity, 174, 259 
Spectacle tool, 259 
Split seconds, 261 
Spoon alloys, 21 



309 



Spring, balance, 46 

Sprung over, 261 

Square, to repair, 2S4 

Staff, 261 

balance, 46 
center, 77 

Staining, 129 

Stake, 261 

case, 62 

Staking tool, 182, 261 

Star wheel, 262 

Steady pins, 262 

Steel, 262 

annealing of, 263 
anti-rust varnish for, 267 
browning or bronzing of, 267 
colors of, under heat, 266 
engraving on, 269 
gilding on, 13S 
glass polisher for, 269 
hardening of, 263, 268 
hardening liquids for, 268 
mat for, 264 
plunging of, 26S 
rusting, to prevent, 267 
rust to remove from, 267 
tempering, 265 

tempering by electricity, 269 
working of, 266 

Stem-wind wheels to fit, 285 

Stop work, 269 

Straightening pivois, 235 

Straight line lever, 269 

Stud, 270 

index, 176 

Sully, Henry, 66 

Sweep seconds, 270 

Swiss universal lathe, 220 

Table, 270 

Tailstock, 270 

half open, 270 
screw, 271 
traverse spindle, 271 

Tavan, Antoine, 66 

Tea pot alloy, 21 



Tempering steel, 265 
Testing needle?, 271 
Third wheel, 272 
Three-quarter plate, 272 
Time, 272 

apparent, 272 
astronomical, 272 
civil, 272 
equation of, 149 
sideral, 272 
solar, 274 
Timing, 274 

screws, 274 
to positions, 12 
Tin putty, 98 
Tompion, Thos., 66 
Touchstone, 274 
Train, 275 

examination of, 286 
Transit instrument, 276 
Traverse spindle grinder, 276 
Tripoli, 98 
Truing balance, 34 
Turns, 276 
Tweezers, 276 

balance, truing, 34 
Twist drills, 123 
Two pin escapement, 277 
Universal face plate, 278 
head, 277 
lathe, 220 
Vaughan mainspring winder, 217 
Velocity, angular, 26 
Verge escapement, 278 
Vernier, caliper, 165, 280 
Vertical escapement, 280 
Vienna lime, 280 
Vise, case spring, 62 
Watch, 280 

bench, 53 

bow plyers, 289 

case tool, 290 

cleaning and repairing, 280 

hand plyers, 291 

hand remover, 179 



310 



Watch oil, 223 
Watchmakers, list of, 291 
Wathiers' stud index, 176 
Wax, watchmakers, 69 
Webster-Whitcomb lathe, 188 
Wheel cutter, 299 
vise, 300 



Wheels and pinions, 294 
White metal, 21 
Winder, mainspring, 216 
Wire bushing, 59 
Wigwag, 300 
Wrench, collet, 102 




SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 




MANUFACTURERS OF THE 



u 



HOPKINS" LATHES, 

LATHE ATTACHMENTS, ETC. 

THE BEST LINE OF LATHES ON THE MARKET. 

PERFECT RUNNING 

ACCURATE IN ALL PARTS 

BEAUTIFULLY DESIGNED and FINISHED 

Tie most Practical line of Attachments at low prices 

The Best is the Cheapest, and the Hopkins 3x4 

Lathe of to-day is the best on the 

American Market. 

Ho Watchmaker can afford to buy a lathe without examining one of ours 

SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. 

311 



foh&& 




L. H. KELLER & CO. 

IMPORTERS OF 
WATCHMAKERS' AND JEWELERS' 

TOOLS and MATERIALS 



our specialties: 

THE WELL KNOWN AND GUARANTEED 

<?&> Lepine Main Springs 

fOUR OWN) 

SOLD BOTH IN SEPARATE FORCES 
and ASSORTED STRENGTHS, 



AND THE . . 



t^rMueri 





gs 



THE BEST ARTICLE OFTHE KIND IN THE MARKET 
ELASTICITY AND BUT LITTLE BREAKAGE GUARANTEED 

f\ pleasure to use tl?em. 

THE JURGENSEN RECOILING MAIN SPRINGS 

FOR HIGH GRADES OF WATCHES 

WEBIDS WATCH and CLOCK OILS 

The Finest Lubricator for all Climates. Sold both by number of hole and diameter of jewel. 

U/? Solvit a sl?ar^ of your patronage. 

L. H. Keller & Co. 

NEAR MAIDEN LANE 64 NASSAU ST., N EW York. 

312 



American Watch Tool Co., 



STONY BATTER WORKS, 



WALTHAM, MASS 



MAKE THE 




rasra-i 



m 




BLA 



m 



Our Mr. Webster began designing lathes in i860; 
This is his Latest and Best. 

By the introduction of special and costly tools we 

have brought the price of lathes down from 

$80.00 in 1875, to $40 00 in 1890 

WHO HAS DONE MORE FOR THE CRAFT THAN WE ? 
Remember our full address when you send for price lists 

313 



Gieave's Demagnetize! 



Patented, june s, 1888; 

FEB'Y 5, 1889, 




Is the SIMPLEST, most DURABLE and EFFEC- 
TIVE machine ever made for DEMAGNETIZING 
WATCHES, and is indispensible to WATCHMAKERS 
having the responsibility and the care of Fine Watches, as 
it will REMOVE all traces of Magnetism without injuring 
the most delicate parts. 

The size of the machine is only 4XS inches, and can be 
attached to either a Battery or electric light wire. 

PRICE COMPLETE, ONLY $20, 

WITHOUT BATTERY. 

In ordering please state system of electric light used. 

If there is no electric light, and a Battery is to be used, i't 
should be equal to two calls, type G, Edison-Lalande 
Battery which can be had from any electric supply store. 

GREAVE'S DEMAGNNETIZER 

can be had from L. H. KELLER & Co., 64 Nassau Street,. 
New York; from any JOBBERS or directly from the 
manufacturers, 

Ja^ard U/atet?9Jeu;<?lry <?o, 

815 Main St., KANSAS CITY, MO. 

314 



It is consistent with the future of this excellent work, 
in enlightening the craft with the latest methods ot 
repairing the wheels of time, that we name our 

Premier Brand 
of Main Springs 

as the safest and best to use. There are fewer 
breaks, they give a more uniform motion, and hun- 
dreds of the best workmen pronounce them the best. 

Elgin Specialty M'fg. Co. 

Elgin, 111. 

O. W. Bullock & Co. 

SPRIK&FIELD, MASS. 



Manufacturers of the largest line of line BENCH 
TOOLS for Watchmakers and Jewelers in the 
United States. Patented tools made in quantities to 
order, or on a Royalty. 

The tools shown in Figs. 15, 16, 35, 36, 39, 40, 45 and 62 
are a few samples of the great variety we make. 
They or anything else in our line can be procured 
directly from us if your jobber does not have them 
in stock. 

For a full list send for our illustrated Catalogue, 100 pages, 
postage four cents. 

We carry nothing but goods of our own manufacture. 
Our motto: 

"AMERICAN TOOLS FOR AMERICANS." 



Vaughan's Patent 



CLOCK MAIN SPRING WINDER 




Takes the spring out 
of the barrel and replaces 
it, or winds a common 
clock spring for putting 
on a ring. 

PRICE $3.50. 

If jour jobber does 
not have them, send to 
the manufacturers. 

YAUGHAK ft FIELD, 

Pawtucket, - R. I. 



JOHN 0USS & CO., 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

MARINE CHRONOMETERS 



128 FRONT STREET, NEW YORK. 




To Watchmakers.— We have 

on hand a number of Chronom- 
eters by various good makers, 
not new, which have been in 
service for purposes of naviga- 
tion, and are excellent instru- 
ments. They have been put in 
perfect repair, and will give satis- 
factory results as to performance. 
We will sell these chronometers 
at low prices, either for cash, or 
on accommodating terms to suit 
special case?, or will hire them 
at moderate rates, and allow the 
hire to apply on purchase. Send 

for circular giving prices and 
terms. 



316 



Do you need a New Lathe? 

If so, get our prices before purchasing else- 
where. We carry all the leading varieties. 

If you have trouble 

in procuring Good Mainsprings, send to us 
for a sample dozen of our Celebrated G. & N. 
Gravier Mainsprings, and in the future you 
will use no others. 

We carry a Complete Line of 

Tools and Material of every description, for 
Watchmakers and Jewelers. You can order 
any tool mentioned in this book from us and 
you will receive it promptly. 

Our Stock of 

Watch Glasses, Watch and Clock Material, 
Lathes, Lathe Attachments, Bench Tools, 
Etc., Etc., is very complete. 

Ejlic^auf \ fleWhouge, 

84 and 86 State Street, 

CHICAGO. 



Qjiea^o U/atety 5ool <?o. 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



FOOT WHEELS, ENGRAVING BLOCKS, WATCH RACKS, 



POLISHING LATHES, AND ROLLING MILLS. 



SCREW 
DRIVERS 



COUNTER 
SHAFTS. 




WATCH 
SIGNS. 



STAKING 
TOOLS. 



52 MADISON STREET, 



SEND FOR CATALOGUE 
AND PRICE CIST. 



CHICAGO, ILL. 



31 S 



Our Invariable Business Rules 

Practiced since May io, 1882 : 

Positively No Goods Sold at Retail. 
No Goods Sold to Peddlers, or to General Stores. 
Price Lists Sent to Regular Jewelers Only. 
Orders Filled Same Day as Received. 



OUR LINES ARE THESE: 



Watches, Chains, Spectacles, 

TOOLS a nd MA TERIALS 

We carry a very large stock and ship goods to every 
state and territory, and to all the Canadian provinces, 
and the universal verdict is in high approval of 
the quality, style and prices throughout our entire 
line. We send to all regular legitimate jewelers 
(and to no others) very complete Watch and Spectacle 
Price Lists, on application accompanied with a busi- 
ness card or satisfactory references. 

We are large importers of Watch Glasses, Mainsprings, 
Jewels, etc., and have a superb stock of all the best 
Tools. One of our specialties is the " Guaranteed" 
Reversible Gravers, illustrtted on page 172 of this 
volume. These tools are far in advance of anything 
for the purpose ever offered to the trade, and they 
add a new delight to the fascinating art of engraving. 
Price with handle, 75 cents each; without handle, 
50 cents each. 

WE SOLICIT A SHARE OF YOUR FUTURE BUSINESS. 

Bowman & Musser 

IMPORTERS AND JOBBERS 

Watches, Chains, Spectacles, Tools and Materials 
Lancaster, Pa. 

319 



L. LELONG & BRO 




REFINERS 

AND 

ASSAYERS 



SWEEP SMELTERS 

S. W.COR. HALSEY and MARSHALL STS., 

NEWARK, N. J. 
GOLD AND SILVER ASSAYING IN ALL ITS BRANCHES 

Correspondence Solicited. Letters Promptly Answered. 

G. *W. TERNAUD & CO. 

MANUFACTURERS OF FINE 

[[old, Silver 1 aqd Diarpd JeWeli* j 

ENGRAVING, COLORING AND 
REPAIRING FOR THE TRADE 



All work sent us from a distance will receive prompt attention. 
Prices always reasonable. 

155 State St., CHICAGO, 111. 



320 



CHAS. KUEHNE & CO. 

Wholesale Jewelers, 

182 State Street, Chicago, 111. 
Watcfies, ^Diamonds attd Jewefrg* 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



"WATCH CASES. 

WATCH CASE AND JEWELRY REPAIRS. 

WATCH WORK FOR THE TRADE A SPECIALTY 
Write for Price List and give us a Trial. 



The Manufacturing Jeweler 

PUBLISHED EVERY TUESDAY. 

Is devoted to the interests of not only Manufacturers, 
Jobbers and Importers, but also Retailers. 

THE LEADING WEEKLY OF ITS GLASS IN AMERICA. 

subscription: 

U. S. and Canada, $1.00 per Annum. 
Foreign Countries, $3.00. 



ADVERTISING RATES MADE KNOWN ON APPLICATION. 

THE MANUFACTURING JEWELER, 
42 Weybosset Street, - PROVIDENCE, R. I. 

321 



BENJ. ALLEN & CO. 

Fine Watch Tools ^ Materials 

I4I & I43 STATE STREET, 
CHICAGO, ILL. 




We carry a complete line of Moseley Lathes and their 
attachments. Low prices furnished on application. We are 
also sole importers of the celebrated "DIAMOND BRAND " 
of Main Springs. 



Benj. Allen 

Watches, Diamonds, Etc. 



& CO. 

Chicago, 111. 



322 



TH E VERY BEST, BUT NONE TOO GOOD FOR OUR CUSTOMERS , 

What Money and Perseverance Can Accomplish. 



THIS GENUINE 



\/EBSTER~W H,TconB H flRD L* THE 

TOGETHER WITH THIS COMI'I.ETE OUTFIT, 

uft.ll For $78,90 3>Tet Casla.. 




SIZE OF LATHH. 

Length of bed. 1 1 inches: bed to center, I" inches; swing, 3" inches. 

PRICE, $55.00. 




It has been our endeavor for years to get together such an ideal I.athe Outfit as would satisfy the 
most fastidious, and at a price that will be appreciated by our patrons Remember we are se ling the 
GENUINE Webster- Whitcomb HARD Lathe with GENUINE Whitcomb Chucks. 

B. F. NORMS, ALISTER & CO., 113-115 State Street, Chicago, 111. 



GOLDSMITH BROS. 



OLD GOLD 

AND 

SILVER BOUGHT 



PLATED JEWELRY 
ClO SWEEPINGS BOUGHT 



OUR 



OUR 



63 Washington St., Chicago. 

motto: 

"honest and prompt returns." 

plan: 

"Immediately on receipt of shipment we will 
or draft, and if same is not satisfactory, we wil 



remit cash 
return con- 



signment 
charges. 



same condition as received and pav all 



Free on application, onr book showing How to Test and Bny Gold. 

A FEW EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS. 



Richmond, Va., June 22, 1891. 
Gents:— Yours of 19th just received. 
Amount ($31.64) is perfectly satisfac 
tory. E. A. SPOTT. 

Cleveland, Ohio, May 8, 1891. 
Gents: — Check for $405.82 received ; 
accept our compliments for satisfactory 
returns, together with your promptness. 
THE PH. MILES JEWELRY CO. 



St. Cloud, Minn., January 2, CS91. 
Gents: — Your check for $12.00 is very 
satisfactory. More than we expected 
to ge'. Many thanks. 

Respectfully, 
GEO. It. CLARK & CO. 

Milwaukee, January 23, 1891. 
Gents: — Your favor of yesterday, 
enclosing check for $205.80 at hand, 
which is very satisfactory. 

Yours truly, 
C. PREUSSER JEWELRY CO. 



FOOT POWER LATHES 




Are you looking for a foot-power, metal-turning, screw-cutting lathe? If so. 
you certainly want the best tool your money can buy, for however it may be in 
regard to other goods, it is indisputably true of machinery and tools, that the " best 
is none too good." We can give you the best foot-power lathe ever made, either in 
this country or in Europe. This is a strong statement and we are fully prepared to 
substantiate it. 

Our lathes are superior to all others in elegance of design, workmanship and 
finish. More than this, they are COMPLETE tools. We can furnish you a lathe 
having back gear, reverse feed for right or left hand threads, hollow spindle and 
other indispensable features which you will not find in cheaper grade tools. Added 
to all this, our velocipede foot-power is incomparably the best ever applied to a 
foot lathe. 

We make these lathes in different sizes, 9 to 13 inches swing, and taking between 
centers from 25 to 69 inches. > In price they range from $70 to $200, and their high 
quality taken into consideration, are the cheapest lathes on the market. 

We shall be pleased to mail to any address our complete catalogue and price 
list, which fully describes these lathes, as well as a large number of other machines 
which we. manufacture. 



614 RUBY STREET, 



JOH1T 



324 



B-^^ISTEIS CO. 

ROCKPOBD, ILLINOIS. 



HUTCHINSON'S 

practical School for Watchnja^ei 1 ?, 



LA FORTE, INb. 



PUPILS RECEIVED IN WATCH MAKING, ENGRAVING, 

OPTICS, SPECIAL TOOL WORK, ETC. 



Students that desire to enter our Manufacturing Department while 
attending school are paid for their services. 



Thorough Instruction and Competent Instructors in all Departments. 



SPECIAL TOOLS FOR THE TRADE. PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION. 



|| J. L. HUTCHINSON, 



I, A PORTE. IiVD. 



GENERAL 



LETTER v E NGRAVING 

For Watchmakers, Jewelers and Kindred Trades. 
By G. F. WHELPLEY. 



Price, Postpaid to any Address, $1.25. 
GEO. K. HAZLITT & CO., Publishers, 

CHICAGO. 

325 



PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR 

WATCHMAKERS am JEWELERS, 

PUBLISHED BY 

GEO. K. HAZLITT & CO. 

351 Dearborn Street, Chicago. 



*The Watchmaker's and Jeweler's Practical Hand Book. 

A workshop companion. Hundreds of valuable receipts and suggestions from 
private formulas and the best authorities, together with hints on making 
certain repairs. An invaluable book for the workman. The most valuable 
book for the money ever offered to the trade. 128 pp. Illustrated. Price 35c 

*€Jeneral Letter Engraving. By G. F. Whelpley, the acknowledged 
authority on engraving. His latest and best work. Contents ; General Hints to 
Beginners ; Lines and Curves; Originality ; Practice Material ; Position of 
Graver; Treatment of Gravers; Correct Spacing; Coffin Plate Engraving; 
Necessary Tools; Laying out the Work; Preparation of Plate; Use of 
Gravers; Methods of Cutting; Slope and Height of Letters; Inclination of 
Graver; Transfering; Letters Appropriate for Long and short Names; Harmony 
in Laying Out; Touching Up; Difficult Materials and their Treatment; Tools 
and Materials; Sharpening Gravers; Proper Angles; Sizes and shapes of 
Gravers; Choice of Tools; Engraving in Rings; Gravers for Same; Engraving 
Blocks and Stands; Ciphers, their Formation and Ornamentation; Inscriptions; 
Best Manner of Cutting; Ciphers as Compared with Monograms; Mono- 
grams and their Treatment; Figure Monograms or Cipheroids; Intertwining; 
Complex Monograms; General Treatment. Copiously Illustrated. 116 pp. 
Cloth. Price.. $1 25 

*The Watch Factories of America, Fast and Present. By 

Henry G. Abbott. A complete history of watchmaking in America, from iSoo 
to 1S88 inclusive. 1 he only book on the subject in print. 140 pp. Illustrated 
with 50 engravings. Second edition. Half Morocco, Marbled edges, $2 25, 
English cloth. $1 c;o 

*Watch Repairing. By N. B. Sherwood. Contents: The Bench and 
its Accessories; The Vise and Oilstone; Lathe Appliances; The Jocot Lathe; 
Depthing Tool; Expanding the Web of a Wheel; The Spreading Tool and its 
Use; The Rounding-Up Tool; Stud Remover; Opening the Regulator; Roller 
Remover; Replacing Broken Teeth; Graining; Polishing Blocks; Polishing 
Steel Work; Polishing Pivots; Superiority of Conical Pivots; The Cutting 
Engine ; To Cut 'Scape Wheels, Replacing Broken Arbors ; Hardening and 
Tempering. So pp. Illustrated. Price... 35c 

The American Jeweler. TJ'he leading horological journal of America. 

The only journal devoting its entire contents to practical articles on watchmaking, 
repairing and kindred subjects. 40 pp. monthly. Subscription per year, payable 
inadvance ._ .'. $, 00 

*The Acme Of Jewelry Repairs. A simple and economical method 
of recording jewelry and miscellaneous repairs. Book of 1,000 entries, substan- 
tially bound |;i Oo 



♦Jewelers' Practical Receipt Book. Contains a mass of valuable 
receipts, formulas and information, gathered from the best and most reliable 
sources. 5th edition, revised and enlarged, 48 pp. Price $ 15 

* Repairing Watch Cases. A practical treatise on the subject. By W. 
Schwanatus. Contents: Repairing the Pendant; Lining Pendant Holes; Work 
at the Joints; Soldering the Bezel; The Closing of the Case; Taking out the 
Dents. 40 pp. Price 25 

♦Poising tlie Ralance. An Essay of unusual merit. By J. L. Finn... 25 

* Hairspringiiig. A complete treatise on the art of hairspringing. By 
A. Z. Price 25 

* Adjustments to Positions, Isochronism and Compensation. 

The only work on the subject in print. 50 pp. Illustrated. Price 25 

♦Prize Essay on Watch Cleaning and Repairing. By F. C. 

Ries. This work took the first prize, (offered by The American Jeweler) in 
competition with thirty-six other writers. Contents: Examination of the Move- 
ment; Takinar Down: 'Fitting the Dial; Fitting Center Pivot and Bridge; Bush- 
ing; Endshake: Worn Center Pinions; Truing the Barrel; Repairing the 
Ratchet; Putting on Square on a Fuzee; Examination of Mainspring: Stem- 
Wind Mechanism; Examination of Train; Imitation Gilding; Pivots; Making 
a Balance Staff; The Hairspring; Jeweling; Cleaning in General. 56 pp. Price 25 

* Watch and Chronometer Jeweling. By N. B. Sherwood. A 
complete treatise on this subject, and the only one in print. Contents: Peculiar- 
ities of Gems used in Making Jewels; Requisite Tools and How to Use Them; 
Shaping and Polishing the Jewel; Opening- the Jewel; Setting the Jewel; The 
End-Shake Tool; General Hints to the Repairer. 100 pp. Illustrated. Price.. 35 

jglP'NoTiCF. — We will not be responsible for books sent by mail. Send 10 
cents extra if you wish package registered. 

Any of the above books sent postage paid on receipt of price, to any part of the 
United States or Canada 

Books not mentioned in this list can be procured promptly upon receipt of cash with 
ordtr. Books will not be exchanged under any circumstances. Books will not bes< nt 
for examination with privilege of returning under any circumstances. They can be 
examined at our office. Send for Complete Catalogue. 



The Jewelers' "Weekly, 3 

41 ™* 43 MdlbEN LdNE, NEW YORK, 

A Wide Awake, Progressive Weekly, for the 
Watchmaking" and Jewelry Trade. 



Unsurpassed as an Advertising Medium. Advertising 
Rates Made Known on Application. 



Subscription: United States and Canada, $2.00. 

Payable in Advance. Foreign Countries, - 4.00. 



If you want to buy or sell anything, try our Special Notice Column. 



327 



PARSONS' HOROLOCKAL INSTITUTE. 



Lfl FORTE, INb. 



The First, 

The Largest, 
The Best. 

^^ PRACTICAL i fECHNKAL EDUCATION 

Engraving, FOR WATCHMflKERS ' 



Established for the purpose 
of giving a 



Optics, 



Jewelry Work. Write for Circulars and Terms. 



Organized April 13, 1891. 



G. D. Parsons, Principal. 




CHICAGO 

WATCHMAKERS' 

INSTITUTE 



. . . FOR . 

Practical Instruction in every detail of Making, Repairing and Adjusting 

Watches, Chronometers and French Clocks; Jewelry 

Repairing, Engraving and Optics. 



Gives you advantages that the combined capital of all other watchmaking 
schools in America could not afford, and at a moderate cost, and guarantees 
satisfaction. 

Located in the elegant new building of the Chicago Athenaeum, 18 to 
26 E. Van Buren St., devoted solely to art and education, and especially 
adapted for the purpose. 



VISITORS ALWAYS WELCOME 






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